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Added a statement about the costs to the Australian government caused by the jellyfish, and a comment about the delayed effects of the venom. Also cited my three sources in the text and in the References section at the bottom of the page.
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[[File:Irukandji-jellyfish-queensland-australia.jpg|thumb|''[[Malo kingi]]'' in a clear plastic vial]]
[[File:Irukandji-jellyfish-queensland-australia.jpg|thumb|''[[Malo kingi]]'' in a clear plastic vial]]


The '''Irukandji jellyfish''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪr|ə|ˈ|k|æ|n|dʒ|i}} {{Respell|irr|ə|KAN|jee}}) are any of several similar, extremely [[venom]]ous [[species]] of rare jellyfish. With a very small adult size of about a cubic centimetre (1&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup>), they are both the smallest and one of the most venomous [[jellyfish]] in the world. They inhabit the northern marine waters of [[Australia]]. This type of jellyfish reproduces sexually with eggs and sperm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Courtney |first1=R |title=Early life history of the 'Irukandji' Jellyfish Carukia Barnesi |year=2016 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=e0151197 |journal=PLOS ONE|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0151197 |pmid=26954781 |pmc=4783009 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1151197C |doi-access=free }}</ref> They fire their stingers into their victim, causing a condition known in humans as [[Irukandji syndrome]], which can be fatal. There are about 16 known species of Irukandji, of which ''[[Carukia barnesi]]'', ''[[Malo kingi]]'', ''[[Malo maxima]]'', ''[[Malo filipina]]'' and ''[[Malo bella]]'' are the best known.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Malo kingi: A new species of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeida), lethal to humans, from Queensland, Australia |last=Gershwin |first=Lisa-Ann |access-date=2010-07-23 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/2670/ |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=1659 |year=2007 |issue=1659 |pages=55–68 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1659.1.2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia |last=Li |first=R. |journal=[[Toxicology Letters]] |year=2011 |volume=201 |issue=3 |pages=221–9 |pmid=21237252 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003}}</ref><ref name="kingslayer">Crew, Becky, [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/running-ponies/the-smallest-and-deadliest-kingslayer-in-the-world/ "The Smallest and Deadliest Kingslayer in the World"], October 7, 2013, ''Scientific American'' blog, retrieved Nov. 6, 2016</ref>
The '''Irukandji jellyfish''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪr|ə|ˈ|k|æ|n|dʒ|i}} {{Respell|irr|ə|KAN|jee}}) are any of several similar, extremely [[venom]]ous [[species]] of rare jellyfish. With a very small adult size of about a cubic centimetre (1&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup>), they are both the smallest and one of the most venomous [[jellyfish]] in the world. They inhabit the northern marine waters of [[Australia]], and cost the Australian government $AUD 3 billion annually through medical costs associated with stings and tourism losses. <ref>{{Citation |last=Gershwin |first=Lisa-ann |title=Chapter One - Biology and Ecology of Irukandji Jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080966000018 |work=Advances in Marine Biology |volume=66 |pages=1–85 |editor-last=Lesser |editor-first=Michael |access-date=2023-11-28 |publisher=Academic Press |last2=Richardson |first2=Anthony J. |last3=Winkel |first3=Kenneth D. |last4=Fenner |first4=Peter J. |last5=Lippmann |first5=John |last6=Hore |first6=Russell |last7=Avila-Soria |first7=Griselda |last8=Brewer |first8=David |last9=Kloser |first9=Rudy J.}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=Olivia C. |last2=Courtney |first2=Robert |last3=Northfield |first3=Tobin |last4=Seymour |first4=Jamie |date=2022-08-04 |title=Environmental drivers of the occurrence and abundance of the Irukandji jellyfish (Carukia barnesi) |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0272359 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=e0272359 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0272359 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC9352007 |pmid=35925949}}</ref> This type of jellyfish reproduces sexually with eggs and sperm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Courtney |first1=R |title=Early life history of the 'Irukandji' Jellyfish Carukia Barnesi |year=2016 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=e0151197 |journal=PLOS ONE|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0151197 |pmid=26954781 |pmc=4783009 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1151197C |doi-access=free }}</ref> They fire their stingers into their victim, causing a condition known in humans as [[Irukandji syndrome]], which can be fatal and difficult to immediately recognize due to the delayed effects of the venom. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winter |first=Kelly L. |last2=Isbister |first2=Geoffrey K. |last3=Schneider |first3=Jennifer J. |last4=Konstantakopoulos |first4=Nicki |last5=Seymour |first5=Jamie E. |last6=Hodgson |first6=Wayne C. |date=2008-07-10 |title=An examination of the cardiovascular effects of an ‘Irukandji’ jellyfish, Alatina nr mordens |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378427408001227 |journal=Toxicology Letters |volume=179 |issue=3 |pages=118–123 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.04.011 |issn=0378-4274}}</ref> There are about 16 known species of Irukandji, of which ''[[Carukia barnesi]]'', ''[[Malo kingi]]'', ''[[Malo maxima]]'', ''[[Malo filipina]]'' and ''[[Malo bella]]'' are the best known.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Malo kingi: A new species of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeida), lethal to humans, from Queensland, Australia |last=Gershwin |first=Lisa-Ann |access-date=2010-07-23 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/2670/ |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=1659 |year=2007 |issue=1659 |pages=55–68 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1659.1.2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia |last=Li |first=R. |journal=[[Toxicology Letters]] |year=2011 |volume=201 |issue=3 |pages=221–9 |pmid=21237252 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003}}</ref><ref name="kingslayer">Crew, Becky, [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/running-ponies/the-smallest-and-deadliest-kingslayer-in-the-world/ "The Smallest and Deadliest Kingslayer in the World"], October 7, 2013, ''Scientific American'' blog, retrieved Nov. 6, 2016</ref>


Irukandji syndrome was named in 1952 by [[Hugo Flecker]],<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562264/ |title=StatPearls |chapter=Irukandji Syndrome |year=2021 |publisher=StatPearls|pmid=32965935 |last1=Kong |first1=E. L. |last2=Nappe |first2=T. M. }}</ref> who first described the symptoms of [[envenomation]] by this jellyfish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearn |first=J. H. |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 14 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]] |pages=182–184 |isbn=978-0-522-84717-8 |chapter-url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/flecker-hugo-10199 |access-date=2013-10-01 |chapter=Flecker, Hugo (1884–1957)}}</ref> The syndrome was named after the [[Irukandji people]], whose region stretches along the coastal strip north of [[Cairns, Queensland]].<ref name="kingslayer"/><ref>{{cite journal |issn=0025-729X |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=89–91 |last=Flecker |first=Hugo |title=Irukandji sting to North Queensland bathers without production of weals but with severe general symptoms |journal=[[The Medical Journal of Australia]] |date=1952-07-19 |pmid=14956317 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1952.tb100081.x |s2cid=29684377}}</ref> The first of these jellyfish, ''Carukia barnesi'', was identified in 1964 by [[Jack Barnes (toxinologist)|Jack Barnes]]; to prove it was the cause of Irukandji syndrome, he captured the tiny jellyfish and allowed it to sting him, his nine-year-old son, and a robust young lifeguard. They all became seriously ill, but survived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Amazing and Bizarre Discovery of Irukandji Syndrome: Emergency Medicine News |journal=[[Emergency Medicine News]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=44 |date=April 2005 |last1=Gussow |first1=Leon |doi=10.1097/00132981-200504000-00037}}</ref> Australian [[toxicology|toxicologist]] [[Jamie Seymour]] made a documentary about the jellyfish called ''Killer Jellyfish''.<ref name="kingslayer"/><ref name="MJA1964-Barnes">{{cite journal |last=Barnes |first=J. |title=Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings |journal=[[Medical Journal of Australia]] |volume=1 |issue=24 |pages=897–904 |year=1964 |pmid=14172390 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21237252 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003 |volume=201 |issue=3 |title=The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia. |date=Mar 2011 |journal=[[Toxicology Letters]] |pages=221–29 |last1=Li |first1=Ran |last2=Wright |first2=Christine E. |last3=Winkel |first3=Kenneth D. |last4=Gershwin |first4=Lisa-Ann |last5=Angus |first5=James A.}}</ref>
Irukandji syndrome was named in 1952 by [[Hugo Flecker]],<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562264/ |title=StatPearls |chapter=Irukandji Syndrome |year=2021 |publisher=StatPearls|pmid=32965935 |last1=Kong |first1=E. L. |last2=Nappe |first2=T. M. }}</ref> who first described the symptoms of [[envenomation]] by this jellyfish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearn |first=J. H. |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 14 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]] |pages=182–184 |isbn=978-0-522-84717-8 |chapter-url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/flecker-hugo-10199 |access-date=2013-10-01 |chapter=Flecker, Hugo (1884–1957)}}</ref> The syndrome was named after the [[Irukandji people]], whose region stretches along the coastal strip north of [[Cairns, Queensland]].<ref name="kingslayer"/><ref>{{cite journal |issn=0025-729X |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=89–91 |last=Flecker |first=Hugo |title=Irukandji sting to North Queensland bathers without production of weals but with severe general symptoms |journal=[[The Medical Journal of Australia]] |date=1952-07-19 |pmid=14956317 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1952.tb100081.x |s2cid=29684377}}</ref> The first of these jellyfish, ''Carukia barnesi'', was identified in 1964 by [[Jack Barnes (toxinologist)|Jack Barnes]]; to prove it was the cause of Irukandji syndrome, he captured the tiny jellyfish and allowed it to sting him, his nine-year-old son, and a robust young lifeguard. They all became seriously ill, but survived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Amazing and Bizarre Discovery of Irukandji Syndrome: Emergency Medicine News |journal=[[Emergency Medicine News]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=44 |date=April 2005 |last1=Gussow |first1=Leon |doi=10.1097/00132981-200504000-00037}}</ref> Australian [[toxicology|toxicologist]] [[Jamie Seymour]] made a documentary about the jellyfish called ''Killer Jellyfish''.<ref name="kingslayer"/><ref name="MJA1964-Barnes">{{cite journal |last=Barnes |first=J. |title=Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings |journal=[[Medical Journal of Australia]] |volume=1 |issue=24 |pages=897–904 |year=1964 |pmid=14172390 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21237252 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003 |volume=201 |issue=3 |title=The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia. |date=Mar 2011 |journal=[[Toxicology Letters]] |pages=221–29 |last1=Li |first1=Ran |last2=Wright |first2=Christine E. |last3=Winkel |first3=Kenneth D. |last4=Gershwin |first4=Lisa-Ann |last5=Angus |first5=James A.}}</ref>

Revision as of 20:40, 28 November 2023

Malo kingi in a clear plastic vial

The Irukandji jellyfish (/ɪrəˈkændʒi/ irr-ə-KAN-jee) are any of several similar, extremely venomous species of rare jellyfish. With a very small adult size of about a cubic centimetre (1 cm3), they are both the smallest and one of the most venomous jellyfish in the world. They inhabit the northern marine waters of Australia, and cost the Australian government $AUD 3 billion annually through medical costs associated with stings and tourism losses. [1] [2] This type of jellyfish reproduces sexually with eggs and sperm.[3] They fire their stingers into their victim, causing a condition known in humans as Irukandji syndrome, which can be fatal and difficult to immediately recognize due to the delayed effects of the venom. [4] There are about 16 known species of Irukandji, of which Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, Malo maxima, Malo filipina and Malo bella are the best known.[5][6][7]

Irukandji syndrome was named in 1952 by Hugo Flecker,[8] who first described the symptoms of envenomation by this jellyfish.[9] The syndrome was named after the Irukandji people, whose region stretches along the coastal strip north of Cairns, Queensland.[7][10] The first of these jellyfish, Carukia barnesi, was identified in 1964 by Jack Barnes; to prove it was the cause of Irukandji syndrome, he captured the tiny jellyfish and allowed it to sting him, his nine-year-old son, and a robust young lifeguard. They all became seriously ill, but survived.[11] Australian toxicologist Jamie Seymour made a documentary about the jellyfish called Killer Jellyfish.[7][12][13]

In 2015, North Queensland researchers discovered evidence that Irukandji jellyfish actively hunt prey.[14][15]

Range

The Irukandji jellyfish exists in the northern waters of Australia.[16] The southern extent of the Irukandji's range on Australia's eastern coast has been gradually moving south.

There has been an increased incidence of Irukandji stings reported around Great Palm Island, off the coast of north Queensland near Townsville. By early December 2020, the number of stings reported, at 23, was nearly double that of the whole of 2019, at 12.[17]

Biology

A scale illustration of an Irukandji jellyfish and its tentacles. Below the jelly's medusa bell are two polyp forms of the species.

Irukandji jellyfish are very small, with a bell about 5 millimetres (0.20 in) to 25 millimetres (0.98 in) wide and four long tentacles, which range in length from just a few centimetres up to 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length.[18]

Malo maxima mature irukandji typically have halo-like rings of tissue around their four tentacles. Apparently, it is the mature Irukandji that are highly venomous (in all species). Apparent Malo maxima juveniles have been identified without the halo-rings, and without gonads, and have demonstrated far weaker toxicity in stinging researchers.[7] The stingers (nematocysts) are in clumps, appearing as rings of small red dots around the bell and along the tentacles.[18]

The Irukandji's small size and transparent body make it very difficult to see in the water.[7]

Very little is known about the life cycle and venom of Irukandji jellyfish. This is partly because they are very small and fragile, requiring special handling and containment.[citation needed] Their venom is very powerful. They are blamed for killing 5 tourists during a 3-month period in Australia; all of the five victims displayed two typical features of Irukandji syndrome: delayed onset (5–40 min to illness and 2–12 h to death) and highly visible distress (vomiting, difficulty breathing, extreme pain, etc.).[19] Researchers conjecture that the venom possesses such potency to enable it to quickly stun its prey, which consists of small and fast fish. Judging from statistics, it is believed that the Irukandji syndrome may be produced by several species of jellyfish, but only Carukia barnesi and Malo kingi have so far been proven to cause the condition.[7][20]

Sting

Unlike most jellyfish, which have stingers only on their tentacles, the Irukandji also has stingers on its bell. Biologists have yet to discover the function of this unique characteristic. The hypothesis is that the feature helps the jellyfish catch its prey of small fish.[7]

Irukandji jellyfish have the ability to fire stingers from the tips of their tentacles and inject venom.[21]

Irukandji jellyfish's stings are so severe they can cause fatal brain hemorrhages and on average send 50-100 people to the hospital annually.[22]

Robert Drewe describes the sting as "100 times as potent as that of a cobra and 1,000 times stronger than a tarantula's".[23]

Between 1 January and early December 2020, 23 stings, seven of which required admission to hospital for Irukandji syndrome, were sustained in the waters around Palm Island, off northern Queensland.[17]

Irukandji syndrome

Main article: Irukandji syndrome

Irukandji syndrome is produced by a small amount of venom and induces excruciating muscle cramps in the arms and legs, severe pain in the back and kidneys, a burning sensation of the skin and face, headaches, nausea, restlessness, sweating, vomiting, an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, and psychological phenomena such as the feeling of impending doom.[24] The syndrome is in part caused by release of catecholamines.[18] The venom contains a sodium channel modulator.[18]

The sting is moderately irritating; the severe syndrome is delayed for 5–120 minutes (30 minutes on average). The symptoms last from hours to weeks, and victims usually require hospitalization. Contrary to belief, researchers from James Cook University and Cairns hospital in far north Queensland have found that vinegar promotes the discharge of jellyfish venom. "You can increase the venom load in your victim by 50 per cent," says Associate Professor Jamie Seymour from the Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine at the university. "That's a big amount, and that's enough to make the difference, we think, between someone surviving and somebody dying."[25] Other research indicates that while vinegar may increase the discharge from triggered stingers, it also prevents untriggered stingers from discharging; since the majority of stingers do not trigger immediately, the Australian Resuscitation Council continues to recommend using vinegar.[26]

Treatment is symptomatic, with antihistamines and anti-hypertensive drugs used to control inflammation and hypertension; intravenous opioids, such as morphine and fentanyl, are used to control the pain.[25] Magnesium sulfate has been used to reduce pain and hypertension in Irukandji syndrome,[27] although it has had no effect in other cases.[28]

Irukandji jellyfish are usually found near the coast, attracted by the warmer water, but blooms have been seen as far as five kilometres offshore. When properly treated, a single sting is normally not fatal, but two people in Australia are confirmed to have died from Irukandji stings in 2002 during a rash of incidents on Australia's northern coast attributed to these jellyfish.[7][29][30][31] It is unknown how many other deaths from Irukandji syndrome have been wrongly attributed to other causes. It is also unknown which jellyfish species can cause Irukandji syndrome apart from Carukia barnesi and Malo kingi.[32]

References

  1. ^ Gershwin, Lisa-ann; Richardson, Anthony J.; Winkel, Kenneth D.; Fenner, Peter J.; Lippmann, John; Hore, Russell; Avila-Soria, Griselda; Brewer, David; Kloser, Rudy J. (1 January 2013), Lesser, Michael (ed.), "Chapter One - Biology and Ecology of Irukandji Jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa)", Advances in Marine Biology, vol. 66, Academic Press, pp. 1–85, retrieved 28 November 2023
  2. ^ Rowley, Olivia C.; Courtney, Robert; Northfield, Tobin; Seymour, Jamie (4 August 2022). "Environmental drivers of the occurrence and abundance of the Irukandji jellyfish (Carukia barnesi)". PLOS ONE. 17 (8): e0272359. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272359. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9352007. PMID 35925949.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  3. ^ Courtney, R (2016). "Early life history of the 'Irukandji' Jellyfish Carukia Barnesi". PLOS ONE. 11 (3): e0151197. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1151197C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151197. PMC 4783009. PMID 26954781.
  4. ^ Winter, Kelly L.; Isbister, Geoffrey K.; Schneider, Jennifer J.; Konstantakopoulos, Nicki; Seymour, Jamie E.; Hodgson, Wayne C. (10 July 2008). "An examination of the cardiovascular effects of an 'Irukandji' jellyfish, Alatina nr mordens". Toxicology Letters. 179 (3): 118–123. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.04.011. ISSN 0378-4274.
  5. ^ Gershwin, Lisa-Ann (2007). "Malo kingi: A new species of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeida), lethal to humans, from Queensland, Australia". Zootaxa. 1659 (1659): 55–68. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1659.1.2. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
  6. ^ Li, R. (2011). "The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia". Toxicology Letters. 201 (3): 221–9. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003. PMID 21237252.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Crew, Becky, "The Smallest and Deadliest Kingslayer in the World", October 7, 2013, Scientific American blog, retrieved Nov. 6, 2016
  8. ^ Kong, E. L.; Nappe, T. M. (2021). "Irukandji Syndrome". StatPearls. StatPearls. PMID 32965935.
  9. ^ Pearn, J. H. (1990). "Flecker, Hugo (1884–1957)". Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 14. Melbourne University Press. pp. 182–184. ISBN 978-0-522-84717-8. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  10. ^ Flecker, Hugo (19 July 1952). "Irukandji sting to North Queensland bathers without production of weals but with severe general symptoms". The Medical Journal of Australia. 2 (3): 89–91. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1952.tb100081.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 14956317. S2CID 29684377.
  11. ^ Gussow, Leon (April 2005). "The Amazing and Bizarre Discovery of Irukandji Syndrome: Emergency Medicine News". Emergency Medicine News. 27 (4): 44. doi:10.1097/00132981-200504000-00037.
  12. ^ Barnes, J. (1964). "Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings". Medical Journal of Australia. 1 (24): 897–904. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x. PMID 14172390.
  13. ^ Li, Ran; Wright, Christine E.; Winkel, Kenneth D.; Gershwin, Lisa-Ann; Angus, James A. (March 2011). "The pharmacology of Malo maxima jellyfish venom extract in isolated cardiovascular tissues: A probable cause of the Irukandji syndrome in Western Australia". Toxicology Letters. 201 (3): 221–29. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.003. PMID 21237252.
  14. ^ Branco, Jorge (5 June 2015). "Deadly irukandji jellyfish catch their food like a human fisher". Brisbane Times. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  15. ^ "Irukandji jellyfish actively hunt prey researchers find". ABC Far North Qld. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  16. ^ Courtney, Robert; Browning, Sally; Seymour, Jamie (2016). "Early Life History of the 'Irukandji' Jellyfish Carukia barnesi". PLOS ONE. 11 (3): e0151197. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1151197C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151197. PMC 4783009. PMID 26954781.
  17. ^ a b Wainwright, Sofie (4 December 2020). "Jellyfish stings on the rise off Palm Island, as summer brings bluebottles and Irukandji". ABC. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 21 December 2020.
  18. ^ a b c d Tibballs, J. (December 2006). "Australian venomous jellyfish, envenomation syndromes, toxins and therapy". Toxicon. 48 (7): 830–59. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.020. PMID 16928389.
  19. ^ Gershwin, L., A. J. Richardson, K. D. Winkel, P. J. Fenner, J. Lippmann, R. Hore, G. Avila-Soria, D. Brewer, R. J. Kloser, A. Steven and S. Condie. (2013). Biology and ecology of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa). Advances in Marine Biology 66: 1-85.
  20. ^ Barnes, J. H. (13 June 1964). "Cause And Effect In Irukandji Stingings". The Medical Journal of Australia. 1 (24): 897–904. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 14172390.
  21. ^ Killer Jellyfish, Oasis
  22. ^ Predicting deadly Australian jellyfish movement, Australian Geographic, 13 May 2014
  23. ^ Drewe, Robert (1 November 2015). The Beach: An Australian Passion. National Library of Australia. ISBN 9780642278807 – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Carrette, Teresa; Seymour, Jamie. "Jellyfish responsible for causing Irukandji syndrome" (PDF). James Cook University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  25. ^ a b Greenland, P.; Hutchinson, D.; Park, T. (March 2006). "Irukandji Syndrome: what nurses need to know". Nursing and Health Sciences. 8 (1): 66–70. doi:10.1111/j.1442-2018.2006.00255.x. PMID 16451431.
  26. ^ Wilcox, Christie (9 April 2014). "Should We Stop Using Vinegar To Treat Box Jelly Stings? Not Yet—Venom Experts Weigh In On Recent Study". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
  27. ^ Corkeron, M.; Pereira, P.; Makrocanis, C. (October 2004). "Early experience with magnesium administration in Irukandji syndrome". Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 32 (5): 666–9. doi:10.1177/0310057X0403200510. PMID 15535491.
  28. ^ Little, M. (August 2005). "Failure of magnesium in treatment of Irukandji syndrome". Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 33 (4): 541–2. PMID 16119507.
  29. ^ Fenner, Peter J.; Hadock, John C. (7 October 2002). "Fatal envenomation by jellyfish causing Irukandji syndrome". The Medical Journal of Australia. 177 (7): 362–3. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04838.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 12358578. S2CID 2157752.
  30. ^ "Hope for lethal jellyfish cure". BBC News. 31 January 2003. Retrieved 5 May 2010.
  31. ^ Lewis, Wendy (2007). See Australia and Die. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-74110-583-4. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
  32. ^ Seymour, Jamie; Carrette, Teresa. "Identification of cubozoans responsible for causing Irukandji syndrome". James Cook University. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
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