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{{Short description|Childcare concept}}
{{Short description|Childcare concept}}
The '''first 1000 days''' describes the period from conception to 24 months of age in [[child development]]. This is considered a "critical period" in which sufficient nutrition and environmental factors have life-long effects on a child's overall health. While adequate nutrition can be exceptionally beneficial during this critical period, inadequate nutrition may also be detrimental to the child. This is because children establish many of their lifetime [[epigenetic]] characteristics in their first 1000 days.<ref name="Linnér_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Linnér A, Almgren M |date=2020 |title=Epigenetic programming-The important first 1000 days |journal=Acta Paediatrica |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1111/apa.15050 |pmid=31603247 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Medical and public health interventions early on in child development during the first 1000 days may have higher rates of success compared to those achieved outside of this period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brines |first1=Juan |last2=Rigourd |first2=Virginie |last3=Billeaud |first3=Claude |date=2022 |title=The First 1000 Days of Infant |journal=Healthcare |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=106 |doi=10.3390/healthcare10010106 |issn=2227-9032 |pmc=8775982 |pmid=35052270 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The '''first 1000 days''' describes the period from conception to 24 months of age in [[child development]]. This is considered a "critical period" in which sufficient nutrition and environmental factors have life-long effects on a child's overall health. While adequate nutrition can be exceptionally beneficial during this critical period, inadequate nutrition may also be detrimental to the child. This is because children establish many of their lifetime [[epigenetic]] characteristics in their first 1000 days.<ref name="Linnér_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Linnér A, Almgren M |date=2020 |title=Epigenetic programming-The important first 1000 days |journal=Acta Paediatrica |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1111/apa.15050 |pmid=31603247 |doi-access=}}</ref> Medical and public health interventions early on in child development during the first 1000 days may have higher rates of success compared to those achieved outside of this period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brines |first1=Juan |last2=Rigourd |first2=Virginie |last3=Billeaud |first3=Claude |date=2022 |title=The First 1000 Days of Infant |journal=Healthcare |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=106 |doi=10.3390/healthcare10010106 |issn=2227-9032 |pmc=8775982 |pmid=35052270 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


Adequate [[Human nutrition|nutrition]] during the first 1000 days can have a direct and indirect influence on both short and long term health outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Beluska-Turkan |first1=Katrina |last2=Korczak |first2=Renee |last3=Hartell |first3=Beth |last4=Moskal |first4=Kristin |last5=Maukonen |first5=Johanna |last6=Alexander |first6=Diane E. |last7=Salem |first7=Norman |last8=Harkness |first8=Laura |last9=Ayad |first9=Wafaa |last10=Szaro |first10=Jacalyn |last11=Zhang |first11=Kelly |last12=Siriwardhana |first12=Nalin |date=2019 |title=Nutritional Gaps and Supplementation in the First 1000 Days |journal=Nutrients |language=en |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=2891 |doi=10.3390/nu11122891 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=6949907 |pmid=31783636 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There are various risk factors in the first 1000 days which, if present, are predictors of later [[obesity]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mameli C, Mazzantini S, Zuccotti GV |date=2016 |title=Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=838 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13090838 |pmc=5036671 |pmid=27563917 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Blake-Lamb 2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blake-Lamb TL, Locks LM, Perkins ME, Woo Baidal JA, Cheng ER, Taveras EM |date=2016 |title=Interventions for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days A Systematic Review |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=780–789 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.010 |pmc=5207495 |pmid=26916260}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo Baidal JA, Locks LM, Cheng ER, Blake-Lamb TL, Perkins ME, Taveras EM |date=2016 |title=Risk Factors for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days: A Systematic Review |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=761–779 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.012 |pmid=26916261}}</ref> Stunted growth may be remedied ([[catch-up growth]]) by attainment of proper nutritional status. This is especially important in adolescent girls, where it may break a cycle of inter-generational underdevelopment.<ref name="Georgiadis 2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Georgiadis A, Penny ME |date=2017 |title=Child undernutrition: opportunities beyond the first 1000 days |journal=The Lancet. Public Health |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=e399 |doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30154-8 |pmid=29253410 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Adequate [[Human nutrition|nutrition]] during the first 1000 days can have a direct and indirect influence on both short and long term health outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Beluska-Turkan |first1=Katrina |last2=Korczak |first2=Renee |last3=Hartell |first3=Beth |last4=Moskal |first4=Kristin |last5=Maukonen |first5=Johanna |last6=Alexander |first6=Diane E. |last7=Salem |first7=Norman |last8=Harkness |first8=Laura |last9=Ayad |first9=Wafaa |last10=Szaro |first10=Jacalyn |last11=Zhang |first11=Kelly |last12=Siriwardhana |first12=Nalin |date=2019 |title=Nutritional Gaps and Supplementation in the First 1000 Days |journal=Nutrients |language=en |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=2891 |doi=10.3390/nu11122891 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=6949907 |pmid=31783636 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There are various risk factors in the first 1000 days which, if present, are predictors of later [[obesity]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mameli C, Mazzantini S, Zuccotti GV |date=2016 |title=Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=838 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13090838 |pmc=5036671 |pmid=27563917 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Blake-Lamb 2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blake-Lamb TL, Locks LM, Perkins ME, Woo Baidal JA, Cheng ER, Taveras EM |date=2016 |title=Interventions for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days A Systematic Review |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=780–789 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.010 |pmc=5207495 |pmid=26916260}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo Baidal JA, Locks LM, Cheng ER, Blake-Lamb TL, Perkins ME, Taveras EM |date=2016 |title=Risk Factors for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days: A Systematic Review |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=761–779 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.012 |pmid=26916261}}</ref> Stunted growth may be remedied ([[catch-up growth]]) by attainment of proper nutritional status. This is especially important in adolescent girls, where it may break a cycle of inter-generational underdevelopment.<ref name="Georgiadis 2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Georgiadis A, Penny ME |date=2017 |title=Child undernutrition: opportunities beyond the first 1000 days |journal=The Lancet. Public Health |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=e399 |doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30154-8 |pmid=29253410 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Revision as of 08:22, 3 December 2023

The first 1000 days describes the period from conception to 24 months of age in child development. This is considered a "critical period" in which sufficient nutrition and environmental factors have life-long effects on a child's overall health. While adequate nutrition can be exceptionally beneficial during this critical period, inadequate nutrition may also be detrimental to the child. This is because children establish many of their lifetime epigenetic characteristics in their first 1000 days.[1] Medical and public health interventions early on in child development during the first 1000 days may have higher rates of success compared to those achieved outside of this period.[2]

Adequate nutrition during the first 1000 days can have a direct and indirect influence on both short and long term health outcomes.[3] There are various risk factors in the first 1000 days which, if present, are predictors of later obesity.[4][5][6] Stunted growth may be remedied (catch-up growth) by attainment of proper nutritional status. This is especially important in adolescent girls, where it may break a cycle of inter-generational underdevelopment.[7]

As a period of rapid growth and development, the first 1000 days of life are foundational to child development and vulnerabilities to future non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular or metabolic diseases.[8]

Microbiota

The first 1000 days of the human microbiome starting from time of conception until 2 years old is a critical time period for growth and development, including nutrients and microbiota. Proper nutrition is an essential to support healthy life; lack of nutrition may have a lifelong negative impact to the child's development.[3] During this time frame of early childhood growth, there are many immune and developmental pathways that are dependent on environmental factors such as nutrients; malnutrition can disrupt growth and development leading to obesity or malnutrition.[9]

During pregnancy, the key microbiota are maternal microbiota and fetal microbiota.[9] Microbiota from the mother is essential for the child's growth even before birth. Pre-birth microbial exposure, either excessive or lack of, can impact growth and development negatively and have long-term effect. For this reason, the mother's nutritional intake becomes important for the child both before birth and after birth.

The first 6 months after birth is characterized mainly by external exposure to microbiota. For instance, different feeding practices leads to different outcomes; breastfeeding and commercial milk will have different essential nutrients and microbiota.[10] Antibiotics may have an effect on the gut microbiota; antibiotic exposure before birth may disrupt the gut microbiota permanently and disrupt the gut functions.[11]

Transitioning into childhood, food intake after 6 months will be changed from milk to complementary foods; this is a critical period for children to get adequate nutrition necessary for growth.[3] From this period, environmental factors start to impact the children more. In underserved communities where families may face food insecurities or poor living conditions, the risk of undernutrition and negative affect to microbial pathway may increase. Cases of undernutrition may be treated by gut microbiota targeted interventions in combination with nutrition; this will restore the lack/loss of microbiota the child has faced during their childhood and promote healthy growth.[9]

Breastfeeding and vaginal birth forms the infant's microbiota which can protect against allergies from developing.[12] However, not everyone can safely give vaginal birth or provide breastmilk due to different circumstances; for infants in these situations, it may be important to look out for specific ingredients such as probiotics in certain infant formulas to makeup for those microbiota.

Epigenetics

Nutrition

Both maternal and early-childhood nutrition influence epigenetic changes, which then inform immunologic and metabolic outcomes throughout development and into later life.[13] Present in human milk are HMOs, bioactive components which aid in immune function and regulation, and miRNA-containing exosomes. HMOs can be fermented into short-chain fatty acids, which play important roles in modulating the microbiome and in T cell differentiation, and may positively correlate with methylation levels.[13][14] miRNA found in milk-derived exosomes may increase immune tolerance.

Metabolic disease, and particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance, is strongly associated with malnutrition. Both parental undernutrition and overnutrition predispose a child to developing these conditions.[15] Under these circumstances, differential methylation of adipose tissue genes and miRNA upregulation in adipose tissue and the pancreas may occur.[16]

Stress exposure

Exposure to emotional, physical, and environmental stressors significantly affect the developing brain, which may later manifest in negative mental- and health-related outcomes through the HPA axis' role in stress regulation.[17]

Maternal depression, anxiety, and stress may be associated with increased rates of mental disorders, including schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, ADHD, and autism in the child. Smoking in pregnancy is associated with differential methylation of genes implicated in brain development, central nervous system disorders, asthma, and various cancers.[18] Stress management and smoking cessation in the birthing parent provide avenues for reducing this risk.[17]

Babies born prematurely are often separated from the birthing parent and sequestered in neonatal intensive care units, where they may require additional care and procedures.[19] Stress caused to the infant during this process is associated with epigenetic modifications relating to behavioral issues and stress regulation, notably hypermethylation of the SLC6A4 gene.[1]

Other forms of childhood adversity, which include abuse or neglect, similarly impact a child's development through differential epigenetic programming and stress response dysregulation. In addition to adverse effects on mental health, children who experience these events often exhibit dampened immune responses.[20]

Nutrition and development

Sufficient overall nutrition within the first 1000 days is vital to healthy neurological and physical growth. This includes, but is not limited to adequate amounts of macronutrients, micronutrients, as well as essential vitamins. The concept of adequate nutrition applies to both the carrying mother as well as the child.[21] Carrying mothers have an increased physiological demand due to their unique circumstance of pregnancy. Their bodies immediately undergo huge changes which require additional nutritional needs. It is also important that mothers sustain adequate nutrition post delivery. This is not just for their own health but the health of their child as breastfeeding is a way that newborns obtain vital macronutrients, micronutrients, and vitamins. There are some macronutrients, micronutrients, and vitamins that may be better obtained and retained if acquired through breastfeeding which is why it is crucial that mothers maintain adequate nutrition post delivery. [22] Key macronutrients include proteins and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), while some key micronutrients include choline, [23] iron,[24] zinc, iodine,[25] calcium, and magnesium.[26] Essential vitamins are also vital for growth and development.[27] This includes: Vitamin A, which is key for fetal development, organogenesis, limb formation, immune functions, mucosal integrity and body symmetry. A lack of vitamin A can lead to xerophthalmia, night blindness, and anemia. Vitamin D:  which is essential for bone development. While a deficiency in Vitamin D can lead to the development of rickets disease. Folate/folic acid: which prevents neural tube defects (NTDs). Children who do not receive adequate nutrition in the first 1000 days can suffer short and long term health consequences.[28] Some of these consequences can be mitigated if identified and addressed early, however they may become harder to rectify as more time passes.[29] For the most part macronutrients, micronutrients, and essential vitamins can and should be obtained through a healthy and well balanced diet. However sometimes this may not be feasible for either the carrying mother or child. In these cases supplementation may be recommended or required. Overall, adequate nutrition within the first 1000 days is a responsibility shared by caregivers (e.g. parents), as well as providers (e.g. pediatricians, social workers, dieticians).

Childhood obesity

Since the first 1000 days of life span both intra- and extrauterine development, dietary requirements can be separated into three distinct phases of dietary development: prenatal, breast or formula feeding, and complementary diet.[30]

Prenatal

Maternal factors such as Type I diabetes, pre-pregnancy weight, gestational diabetes, and gestational weight gain are all risk factors for childhood obesity. While this relationship between maternal factors and development of childhood obesity is not completely understood, it is theorized that altered intrauterine conditions due to elevated nutrient exposure affect fetal development such that the child is programmed to be at higher risk. Interventions to manage maternal pre-existing conditions, as well as gestational complications, such as maintaining health blood sugar levels and blood pressures may help to reduce this risk.[30]

Breast/Formula feeding

Population studies have shown that breast feeding has a long-term benefit of preventing obesity in the future.[31] Formula-fed children tend to follow an "accelerated growth curve" compared to breast-fed children who develop along a slower growth curve because they tend to have higher levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF)-1.[32] This difference in levels of IGF-1 may be due to differences in nutrient compositions of breast milk and formula milk. This phase of dietary development is also highly dependent on the dietary behaviors of the mother.

Complementary diet

The final stage of dietary development is the longest of the three stages, spanning from months 6-24 and presents the most potential for developing risks for obesity. This is partially due to the fact that the complementary diet comprises the largest fraction of dietary development, but particularly because transitioning from liquid to solid foods presents a challenge of its own. More recent research has been expanding on the role of epigenetics and microbiota during the first 1000 days in the development of childhood obesity.[33]

References

  1. ^ a b Linnér A, Almgren M (2020). "Epigenetic programming-The important first 1000 days". Acta Paediatrica. 109 (3): 443–452. doi:10.1111/apa.15050. PMID 31603247.
  2. ^ Brines, Juan; Rigourd, Virginie; Billeaud, Claude (2022). "The First 1000 Days of Infant". Healthcare. 10 (1): 106. doi:10.3390/healthcare10010106. ISSN 2227-9032. PMC 8775982. PMID 35052270.
  3. ^ a b c Beluska-Turkan, Katrina; Korczak, Renee; Hartell, Beth; Moskal, Kristin; Maukonen, Johanna; Alexander, Diane E.; Salem, Norman; Harkness, Laura; Ayad, Wafaa; Szaro, Jacalyn; Zhang, Kelly; Siriwardhana, Nalin (2019). "Nutritional Gaps and Supplementation in the First 1000 Days". Nutrients. 11 (12): 2891. doi:10.3390/nu11122891. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 6949907. PMID 31783636.
  4. ^ Mameli C, Mazzantini S, Zuccotti GV (2016). "Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (9): 838. doi:10.3390/ijerph13090838. PMC 5036671. PMID 27563917.
  5. ^ Blake-Lamb TL, Locks LM, Perkins ME, Woo Baidal JA, Cheng ER, Taveras EM (2016). "Interventions for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days A Systematic Review". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (6): 780–789. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.010. PMC 5207495. PMID 26916260.
  6. ^ Woo Baidal JA, Locks LM, Cheng ER, Blake-Lamb TL, Perkins ME, Taveras EM (2016). "Risk Factors for Childhood Obesity in the First 1,000 Days: A Systematic Review". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (6): 761–779. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.012. PMID 26916261.
  7. ^ Georgiadis A, Penny ME (2017). "Child undernutrition: opportunities beyond the first 1000 days". The Lancet. Public Health. 2 (9): e399. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30154-8. PMID 29253410.
  8. ^ Scott, Jane A. (2020). "The first 1000 days: A critical period of nutritional opportunity and vulnerability". Nutrition & Dietetics. 77 (3): 295–297. doi:10.1111/1747-0080.12617. ISSN 1446-6368. PMID 32478460. S2CID 219168825.
  9. ^ a b c Robertson RC, Manges AR, Finlay BB, Prendergast AJ (2019). "The Human Microbiome and Child Growth - First 1000 Days and Beyond". Trends in Microbiology. 27 (2): 131–147. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2018.09.008. PMID 30529020. S2CID 54479497.
  10. ^ Billeaud C, Brines J, Belcadi W, Castel B, Rigourd V (2021). "Nutrition of Pregnant and Lactating Women in the First 1000 Days of Infant". Healthcare. 10 (1): 65. doi:10.3390/healthcare10010065. PMC 8775626. PMID 35052229.
  11. ^ Aires J (2021). "First 1000 Days of Life: Consequences of Antibiotics on Gut Microbiota". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: 681427. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.681427. PMC 8170024. PMID 34093505.
  12. ^ Cukrowska B, Bierła JB, Zakrzewska M, Klukowski M, Maciorkowska E (2020). "The Relationship between the Infant Gut Microbiota and Allergy. The Role of Bifidobacterium breve and Prebiotic Oligosaccharides in the Activation of Anti-Allergic Mechanisms in Early Life". Nutrients. 12 (4): 946. doi:10.3390/nu12040946. PMC 7230322. PMID 32235348.
  13. ^ a b Esch, Betty C. A. M. van; Porbahaie, Mojtaba; Abbring, Suzanne; Garssen, Johan; Potaczek, Daniel P.; Savelkoul, Huub F. J.; Neerven, R. J. Joost van (2020). "The Impact of Milk and Its Components on Epigenetic Programming of Immune Function in Early Life and Beyond: Implications for Allergy and Asthma". Frontiers in Immunology. 11. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.02141. ISSN 1664-3224. PMC 7641638. PMID 33193294.
  14. ^ Bianco-Miotto, T.; Craig, J. M.; Gasser, Y. P.; Dijk, S. J. van; Ozanne, S. E. (2017). "Epigenetics and DOHaD: from basics to birth and beyond". Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 8 (5): 513–519. doi:10.1017/S2040174417000733. ISSN 2040-1744. PMID 28889823. S2CID 10545857.
  15. ^ Block, Tomasz; El-Osta, Assam (2017). "Epigenetic programming, early life nutrition and the risk of metabolic disease". Atherosclerosis. 266: 31–40. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.09.003. ISSN 0021-9150. PMID 28950165.
  16. ^ Ong, Thomas P.; Ozanne, Susan E. (2015). "Developmental programming of type 2 diabetes: early nutrition and epigenetic mechanisms". Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care. 18 (4): 354. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000177. ISSN 1363-1950. PMID 26049632. S2CID 1682293.
  17. ^ a b Babenko O, Kovalchuk I, Metz GA (2015). "Stress-induced perinatal and transgenerational epigenetic programming of brain development and mental health". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 48: 70–91. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.013. PMID 25464029. S2CID 24803183.
  18. ^ Joubert BR, Felix JF, Yousefi P, Bakulski KM, Just AC, Breton C, et al. (2016). "DNA Methylation in Newborns and Maternal Smoking in Pregnancy: Genome-wide Consortium Meta-analysis". American Journal of Human Genetics. 98 (4): 680–696. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.02.019. PMC 4833289. PMID 27040690.
  19. ^ Provenzi L, Guida E, Montirosso R (2018). "Preterm behavioral epigenetics: A systematic review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 84: 262–271. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.020. PMID 28867654. S2CID 22540646.
  20. ^ Vaiserman AM (2015). "Epigenetic programming by early-life stress: Evidence from human populations". Developmental Dynamics. 244 (3): 254–265. doi:10.1002/dvdy.24211. PMID 25298004. S2CID 18557835.
  21. ^ Likhar, Akanksha; Patil, Manoj S (2022-10-08). "Importance of Maternal Nutrition in the First 1,000 Days of Life and Its Effects on Child Development: A Narrative Review". Cureus. 14 (10): e30083. doi:10.7759/cureus.30083. ISSN 2168-8184. PMC 9640361. PMID 36381799.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  22. ^ Beluska-Turkan, Katrina; Korczak, Renee; Hartell, Beth; Moskal, Kristin; Maukonen, Johanna; Alexander, Diane E.; Salem, Norman; Harkness, Laura; Ayad, Wafaa; Szaro, Jacalyn; Zhang, Kelly; Siriwardhana, Nalin (2019-11-27). "Nutritional Gaps and Supplementation in the First 1000 Days". Nutrients. 11 (12): 2891. doi:10.3390/nu11122891. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 6949907. PMID 31783636.
  23. ^ Bragg, Megan G; Prado, Elizabeth L; Stewart, Christine P (2022-03-10). "Choline and docosahexaenoic acid during the first 1000 days and children's health and development in low- and middle-income countries". Nutrition Reviews. 80 (4): 656–676. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuab050. ISSN 0029-6643. PMC 8907485. PMID 34338760.
  24. ^ Burke RM, Leon JS, Suchdev PS (2014). "Identification, prevention and treatment of iron deficiency during the first 1000 days". Nutrients. 6 (10): 4093–4114. doi:10.3390/nu6104093. PMC 4210909. PMID 25310252.
  25. ^ Velasco, Inés; Bath, Sarah; Rayman, Margaret (2018-03-01). "Iodine as Essential Nutrient during the First 1000 Days of Life". Nutrients. 10 (3): 290. doi:10.3390/nu10030290. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 5872708. PMID 29494508.
  26. ^ Cusick, Sarah E.; Georgieff, Michael K. (August 2016). "The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the "First 1000 Days"". The Journal of Pediatrics. 175: 16–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.05.013. PMC 4981537. PMID 27266965.
  27. ^ Elmadfa I, Meyer AL (2012). "Vitamins for the first 1000 days: preparing for life". International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. 82 (5): 342–347. doi:10.1024/0300-9831/a000129. PMID 23798053. S2CID 6666227.
  28. ^ Schwarzenberg SJ, Georgieff MK (2018). "Advocacy for Improving Nutrition in the First 1000 Days to Support Childhood Development and Adult Health". Pediatrics. 141 (2): e20173716. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-3716. PMID 29358479.
  29. ^ Cusick SE, Georgieff MK (2016). "The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the "First 1000 Days"". The Journal of Pediatrics. 175: 16–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.05.013. PMC 4981537. PMID 27266965.
  30. ^ a b Mameli, Chiara; Mazzantini, Sara; Zuccotti, Gian (2016). "Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (9): 838. doi:10.3390/ijerph13090838. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 27563917.
  31. ^ Thompson, Amanda L. (May 2012). "Developmental origins of obesity: Early feeding environments, infant growth, and the intestinal microbiome". American Journal of Human Biology. 24 (3): 350–360. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22254. PMID 22378322. S2CID 29748011.
  32. ^ Mameli, Chiara; Mazzantini, Sara; Zuccotti, Gian (2016). "Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (9): 838. doi:10.3390/ijerph13090838. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 27563917.
  33. ^ Rughani, Ankur; Friedman, Jacob E.; Tryggestad, Jeanie B. (September 2020). "Type 2 Diabetes in Youth: the Role of Early Life Exposures". Current Diabetes Reports. 20 (9): 45. doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01328-6. ISSN 1534-4827. PMID 32767148. S2CID 221019597.
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