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[[File:002Muzaffir-1.JPG|thumb|Copper coin of Muzaffar Shah]]
[[File:002Muzaffir-1.JPG|thumb|Copper coin of Muzaffar Shah]]
{{Gujarat Sultanate}}
{{Gujarat Sultanate}}
'''Muzaffar Shah I''', born '''Zafar Khan''', was the founder of the [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]] in [[Medieval India]], reigning over the [[Gujarat Sultanate]] from 1391 to 1403 and again from 1404 to 1411. The [[Kumbalgarh]] inscription says that [[Kshetra Singh]] ([[Maharana]] of [[Mewar]]) defeated and '''captured''' Zafar Khan, King of [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]] (who later became the first independent [[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultan of Gujarat]]) and the Khan remain in imprisonment with other Rajas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarda |first=Har Bilas |url=https://archive.org/details/maharanakumbhaso00sardrich/page/4/mode/2up |title=Maharana Kumbha: sovereign, soldier, scholar |page=4}}</ref>
'''Muzaffar Shah I''', born '''Zafar Khan''', was the founder of the [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]] in [[Medieval India]], reigning over the [[Gujarat Sultanate]] from 1391 to 1403 and again from 1404 to 1411. He was appointed the governor of Gujarat by [[Tughluq dynasty]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later declared the independence of the Gujarat Sultanate while there was chaos in Delhi following [[Timur]]'s invasion. He was deposed by his ambitious son [[Muhammad Shah I|Tatar Khan]] but he regained the throne shortly after, when he died.

After his release, sometime later he was appointed the governor of Gujarat by [[Tughluq dynasty]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later declared the independence of the Gujarat Sultanate while there was chaos in Delhi following [[Timur]]'s invasion. He was deposed by his ambitious son [[Muhammad Shah I|Tatar Khan]] but he regained the throne shortly after, when he died.

==Ancestors==
==Ancestors==
The [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]] was founded by Muzaffar Shah I. There are multiple theories of origin of Muzaffar Shah, he has been stated as a Punjabi [[Rajput]]<ref name=moti>{{Cite book |last=Dhir |first=Krishna S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVx6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |title= Urdu: A Multidisciplinary Analysis|date=2022-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-4301-1 |pages=498 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a369DwAAQBAJ&q=burton+stein+History+of+India |title=A History of India |date=2010-04-12 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |pages=142 |language=en|quote=Ahmedabad in Gujarat received its great congregational mosque in 1423, though it had been a province of Delhi since 1297. It was built by Ahmad Shah, a converted Rajput, who, when governor, declared the province an independent sultanate in 1411.}} <br />{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&q=Sadharan&pg=PA70 |title=Medieval India ( From Sultanat to the Mughals), PART ONE Delhi Sultanat ( 1206-1526) |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |year=2004 |isbn=9788124110645 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=Sadharan a Rajput who converted to Islam}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Saran |first=Kishori Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxZuAAAAMAAJ&q=kishori+saran+lal+wajih-ul-mulk |title=The legacy of Muslim Rule in India |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |year=1992 |isbn=9788185689036 |pages=233}}<br />{{Cite book |title=Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 39 |year=1989 |pages=120 |language=en |quote=Wajih- al - Mulk was by birth a Hindu Rajput of Tanka}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Jutta |first=Jain-Neubauer |title=The Stepwells of Gujarat: In Art- Historical perspective |year=1981 |pages=62}}<br/>{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Aparna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrxsDwAAQBAJ&q=aparna+kapadia+tank+rajput&pg=PA8 |title=Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781107153318 |pages=8}}</ref> or a [[Khatri]] with origins in south [[Punjab]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Aparna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrxsDwAAQBAJ&q=in+praise+of+kings,+rajputs |title=Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region |date=2018-05-16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15331-8 |pages=120 |language=en |quote=the Gujarati historian Sikandar does narrate the story of their ancestors having once been Hindu 'Tanks', a branch of Khatris}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C&q=muzaffar+khan+tank+khatri&pg=PA143 |title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries |date=2003 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-13561-1 |pages=143 |language=en |quote=Similarly, Zaffar Khan Muzaffar, the first independent ruler of Gujarat was not a foreign muslim but a Khatri convert, of low subdivision called Tank, originally from southern Punjab.}}
The [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]] was founded by Muzaffar Shah I. There are multiple theories of origin of Muzaffar Shah, he has been stated as a Punjabi [[Rajput]]<ref name=moti>{{Cite book |last=Dhir |first=Krishna S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVx6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |title= Urdu: A Multidisciplinary Analysis|date=2022-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-4301-1 |pages=498 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a369DwAAQBAJ&q=burton+stein+History+of+India |title=A History of India |date=2010-04-12 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |pages=142 |language=en|quote=Ahmedabad in Gujarat received its great congregational mosque in 1423, though it had been a province of Delhi since 1297. It was built by Ahmad Shah, a converted Rajput, who, when governor, declared the province an independent sultanate in 1411.}} <br />{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&q=Sadharan&pg=PA70 |title=Medieval India ( From Sultanat to the Mughals), PART ONE Delhi Sultanat ( 1206-1526) |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |year=2004 |isbn=9788124110645 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=Sadharan a Rajput who converted to Islam}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Saran |first=Kishori Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxZuAAAAMAAJ&q=kishori+saran+lal+wajih-ul-mulk |title=The legacy of Muslim Rule in India |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |year=1992 |isbn=9788185689036 |pages=233}}<br />{{Cite book |title=Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 39 |year=1989 |pages=120 |language=en |quote=Wajih- al - Mulk was by birth a Hindu Rajput of Tanka}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Jutta |first=Jain-Neubauer |title=The Stepwells of Gujarat: In Art- Historical perspective |year=1981 |pages=62}}<br/>{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Aparna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrxsDwAAQBAJ&q=aparna+kapadia+tank+rajput&pg=PA8 |title=Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781107153318 |pages=8}}</ref> or a [[Khatri]] with origins in south [[Punjab]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Aparna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrxsDwAAQBAJ&q=in+praise+of+kings,+rajputs |title=Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region |date=2018-05-16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15331-8 |pages=120 |language=en |quote=the Gujarati historian Sikandar does narrate the story of their ancestors having once been Hindu 'Tanks', a branch of Khatris}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C&q=muzaffar+khan+tank+khatri&pg=PA143 |title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries |date=2003 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-13561-1 |pages=143 |language=en |quote=Similarly, Zaffar Khan Muzaffar, the first independent ruler of Gujarat was not a foreign muslim but a Khatri convert, of low subdivision called Tank, originally from southern Punjab.}}

Revision as of 13:46, 30 December 2023

For other people of the same name, see Muzaffar Shah.
Muzaffar Shah I
Governor of Gujarat, Delhi Sultanate
Sultan of Gujarat
Reign1391–1403
PredecessorFarhat-ul-Mulk Rasti Khan
SuccessorMuhammad Shah I
Reign1404–1411
PredecessorMuhammad Shah I
SuccessorAhmad Shah I
Died1411
Burial1411
Anhilwada Patan
DynastyMuzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat
FatherWajih-ul-Mulk
ReligionIslam
Copper coin of Muzaffar Shah
Gujarat Sultanate
Muzaffarid dynasty

Muzaffar Shah I, born Zafar Khan, was the founder of the Muzaffarid dynasty in Medieval India, reigning over the Gujarat Sultanate from 1391 to 1403 and again from 1404 to 1411. He was appointed the governor of Gujarat by Tughluq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and later declared the independence of the Gujarat Sultanate while there was chaos in Delhi following Timur's invasion. He was deposed by his ambitious son Tatar Khan but he regained the throne shortly after, when he died.

Ancestors

The Muzaffarid dynasty was founded by Muzaffar Shah I. There are multiple theories of origin of Muzaffar Shah, he has been stated as a Punjabi Rajput[1][2] or a Khatri with origins in south Punjab.[3] Misra states that Tank were Khatris who were agrarian people belonging to south Punjab.[4] However according to Aparna Kapadia, Saharan, the father of Zafar Khan, was probably a Tank Rajput who lived in Thanesar in modern-day Haryana.[5] American historian Richard M. Eaton simply described Zafar Khan being the son of a "peasant convert to Islam",[6] with historians such as Dr. V.K Agnihotri and Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi even writing that Sadhāran was a Jat convert to Islam.[7][8] According to Shaikh Sikandar Ibn Muhammad's Mirati Sikandari, who was a contemporary of Gujarat Sultans, Sadhāran/Sahāran had a long list of ancestors that eventually traced to Rāmacandra. This claim of the sultans’ links with the solar lineage is not found very often in texts and inscriptions they patronised.[9]

Early life

Zafar Khan was born on Muharram 25, year 743 (30 June 1342).[10]

Zafar Khan was a son of Wajih-ul-Mulk. According to a legend, saint Bukhari promised Gujarat to Zafar Khan prophetically in return of food provided to Fakirs at his house. He gave him handful of dates and declared, "Thy seed like unto these in number shall rule over Gujarat". The number of seeds varied from eleven to thirteen according to various sources.[11][12]

Muhammad Bin Tughluq was on an expedition to intervene in a war but died at Thatta on the bank of the Indus river in 1351 from fever induced by a surfeit of fish. As he had no sons, his cousin Firuz Shah Tughluq succeeded.[13]

Firuz Shah Tughluq appointed Malik Mufarrah, also known as Farhat-ul-Mulk Rasti Khan governor of Gujarat in 1377. In 1387, Sikandar Khan was sent to replace him, but he was defeated and killed by Farhat-ul-Mulk. Firuz Shah died in 1388 and his grandson, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II succeeded but was reign only for five months. He was succeeded by another grandson Abu Bakr Shah but after nine months he was deposed by Firuz Shah's son, Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III who ruled for three years 1389–1392.[14]

Reign

Governor of Gujarat under Tughluqs (1391–1407)

In 1391, Sultan Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III appointed Zafar Khan, the son of Wajih-ul-Mulk as governor of Gujarat and conferred him the title of Muzaffar Khan. In passing Nagor he was met by a deputation from Cambay, complaining of the tyranny of Rásti Khán. Consoling them, he proceeded to Pátan, the seat of government, and then marched against Rásti Khán. The armies met near the village of Kamboi, a dependency of Pátan, and Farhat-ul-Mulk Rásti Khán was slain and his army defeated. To commemorate the victory, Zafar Khán founded a village on the battle-field, which he named Jítpur (the city of victory), and then, starting for Cambay, redressed the grievances of the people.[15] It was rumoured that Farhat-ul-Mulk was trying to establish independent rule in Gujarat. In 1392, Farhat-ul-Mulk was defeated and killed in the battle of Kambor (now Gambhu), near Anhilwada Patan and occupied the city of Anhilwada Patan. He founded Jitpur at the site of victory.[16][14]

On the death of Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III in 1392, his son Sikandar assumed the throne but he died just after 45 days. He was succeeded by his brother Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq II but his cousin Nusrat Khan also claimed similar rank in Firuzabad.[17]

Zafar Khán's fought against the Rao of Idar, who, in 1393, had refused to pay the customary tribute, and this chief he humbled. The contemporary histories seem to show that the previous governors had recovered tribute from all or most of the chiefs of Gujarát except from the Ráo of Junagadh and the Rája of Rajpipla, who had retained their independence. Zafar Khán now planned an expedition against the celebrated Somnath temple, but, hearing that Ádil Khán of Ásír-Burhánpur had invaded Sultánpur and Nandurbar, he moved his troops in that direction, and Ádil Khán retired to Ásir.[15]

In 1394, he marched against the Ráo of Junágaḍh and exacted tribute. Afterwards, proceeding to Somnath, he destroyed the temple, built an Jumma Mosque, introduced Islám, left Muslim law officers, and established a thána or post in the city of Somnáth Pátan or Deva Pátan. He heard that the Hindus of Mandu were oppressing the Muslims, and, accordingly, marching there, he beleaguered that fortress for a year, but failing to take it contented himself with accepting the excuses of the Rája. From Mándu he performed a pilgrimage to Ajmer. Here he proceeded against the chiefs of Sambhar and Dandwana, and then attacking the Rájputs of Delváḍa and Jháláváḍa,[A] he defeated them, and returned to Pátan in 1396.[18]

About this time his son Tátár Khán, leaving his baggage in the fort of Panipat, made an attempt on Delhi. But Iqbál Khán took the fort of Pánipat, captured Tátár Khán's baggage, and forced him to withdraw to Gujarát. In 1397, with the view of reducing Ídar, Zafar Khán besieged the fort, laying waste the neighbouring country.[18]

In prevailing situation, Timur invaded India and marched on Delhi in 1398. In early 1399, he defeated Mahmud II and looted and destroyed the much of Delhi. Sultan Mahmud II escaped and after many wanderings, reached Patan. He hoped to secure Zafar Khan's alliance to march to Delhi but Zafar Khan declined. He went to Malwa where he was declined again by local governor. Meanwhile his Wazir Iqbal Khan had expelled Nusrat Khan from Delhi so he returned to Delhi but he had no longer enough authority over provinces which were ruled independently by his governors.[17]

Before Zafar Khan had taken the Idar fort Zafar Khán received news of Timur's conquest of Delhi, and concluding a peace with the Ídar king, returned to Pátan. In 1398, hearing that the Somnáth people claimed independence, Zafar Khán led an army against them, defeated them, and established Islám on a firm footing.[18]

In 1403, Zafar Khan's son Tatar Khan urged his father to march on Delhi, which he declined. As a result, in 1403, Tatar imprisoned him in Ashawal (future Ahmedabad) and declared himself sultan under the title of Muhammad Shah. He humbled the chief of Nandod in Rajpipla. He marched towards Delhi, but on the way he was poisoned by his uncle, Shams Khán Dandáni at Sinor on the north bank of the Narmada river. Some sources says he died naturally due to weather or due to his habit of heavy drinking. After the death of Muhammad Shah, Zafar was released from the prison in 1404. Zafar Khán asked his own younger brother Shams Khán Dandáni to carry on the government, but he refused. Zafar Khán accordingly sent Shams Khán Dandáni to Nágor in place of Jalál Khán Khokhar. Zafar took over the control over administration. In 1407, he declared himself as Sultan Muzaffar Shah at Birpur or Sherpur, took the insignia of royalty and issued coins in his name.[19][16][20][21]

Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1411)

At this time Álp Khán, son of Diláwar Khán of Málwa, was rumoured to have poisoned his father and ascended the throne with the title of Sultán Hushang Ghori. On hearing this Muzaffar Sháh marched against Hushang and besieged him in Dhár.He had successful expedition against Dhar (Malwa) which came under his control.[21]

Muzaffar handed Hushang to the charge of his brother Shams Khán, on whom he conferred the title of Nasrat Khán. Hushang remained a year in confinement, and Músa Khán one of his relations usurped his authority. On hearing this, Hushang begged to be released, and Muzaffar Sháh not only agreed to his prayer, but sent his grandson Áhmed Khán (later Ahmad Shah I) with an army to reinstate him. This expedition was successful; the fortress of Mándu was taken and the usurper Músa Khán was put to flight. Áhmed Khán returned to Gujarát in 1409–10 AD. Meanwhile Muzaffar advancing towards Delhi to aid Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, prevented an intended attack on that city by Sultán Ibráhím of Jaunpur.[22]

He had suppressed a rebellion or sent an unsuccessful expedition to Kanthkot in Kutch. According to Mirat-i-Ahmadi, he abdicated the throne in favour of his grandson Ahmad Shah I in 1410 due to his failing health. He died five months and 13 days later. According to Mirat-i-Sikandari, Ahmad Shah was going to an expedition to quell the rebellion of Kolis of Ashawal. After leaving Patan, he convened an assembly of Ulemas and asked a question that should he took retribution his father's unjust death. Ulemas replied in favour and he got the written answers. He returned to Patan and forced his grandfather Muzaffar Shah to drink poison which killed him. He was buried in Patan. Ahmad Shah I succeeded him at the age of 19 in 1411.[19][16][20][22]

Notes

  1. ^ Identification of Delváḍa and Jháláváḍa are somewhat difficult. The context suggests either Jalore in Rajasthan or Jháláváḍa in the extreme south-east of Rajasthan, south of Kota. The combination Delváḍa and Jháláváḍa seems to favour Saurashtra region of Gujarat since there is a Delvada in the south of the Saurashtra near Diu and a Jháláváḍa in the north-east. But the Delváda of the text can hardly be near Diu. It apparently is Delváda near Eklingji about twenty miles north of Udaipur. The account of Ahmad Shah I's expedition to the same place in 1431 confirms this identification.

References

  1. ^ Dhir, Krishna S. (2022-01-01). Urdu: A Multidisciplinary Analysis. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 498. ISBN 978-81-208-4301-1.
  2. ^ Stein, Burton (2010-04-12). A History of India. John Wiley & Sons. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6. Ahmedabad in Gujarat received its great congregational mosque in 1423, though it had been a province of Delhi since 1297. It was built by Ahmad Shah, a converted Rajput, who, when governor, declared the province an independent sultanate in 1411.
    Chandra, Satish (2004). Medieval India ( From Sultanat to the Mughals), PART ONE Delhi Sultanat ( 1206-1526). Har-Anand Publications. p. 218. ISBN 9788124110645. Sadharan a Rajput who converted to Islam
    Saran, Kishori Lal (1992). The legacy of Muslim Rule in India. Aditya Prakashan. p. 233. ISBN 9788185689036.
    Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 39. 1989. p. 120. Wajih- al - Mulk was by birth a Hindu Rajput of Tanka
    Jutta, Jain-Neubauer (1981). The Stepwells of Gujarat: In Art- Historical perspective. p. 62.
    Kapadia, Aparna (2018). Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 9781107153318.
  3. ^ Kapadia, Aparna (2018-05-16). Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-107-15331-8. the Gujarati historian Sikandar does narrate the story of their ancestors having once been Hindu 'Tanks', a branch of Khatris
    Wink, André (2003). Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries. BRILL. p. 143. ISBN 978-90-04-13561-1. Similarly, Zaffar Khan Muzaffar, the first independent ruler of Gujarat was not a foreign muslim but a Khatri convert, of low subdivision called Tank, originally from southern Punjab.
    Khan, Iqtidar Alam (25 April 2008). Historical Dictionary of Medieval India. Scarecrow Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-8108-5503-8. The founder of the Gujarat Sultanate he was a convert from a sect of Hindu Khatris known as Tanks.
    Misra, S. C. (Satish Chandra) (1963). The rise of Muslim power in Gujarat; a history of Gujarat from 1298 to 1442. Internet Archive. New York, Asia Pub. House. p. 137. Zafar Khan was not a foreign muslim. He was a convert to Islam from a sect of the Khatris known as Tank.
    Khan, Iqtidar Alam (2004). Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India. Oxford University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-19-566526-0. Zafar Khan (entitled Muzaffar Shah) himself was a convert to Islam from a sub-caste of the Khatris known as Tank.
    Yarshater, Ehsan (2003). Encyclopaedia Iranica: Giōni. Mazda Publishers. ISBN 9780933273733.
  4. ^ Misra, S.C. (1963). The Rise of Muslim in Gujarat: A History of Gujarat from 1298 to 1442. Asia Publishing House. pp. 137–139.
  5. ^ Kapadia, Aparna (2018). In Praise of Kings Rajputs, Sultans and Poets in Fifteenth-century Gujarat. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 9781107153318. These men, a certain Saharan and his brother Sadhu, were, mostly likely peasants or pastoralists, non-Muslim Tank Rajputs from Thanesar in northwestern India (modern-day Haryana).
  6. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (17 September 2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. ISBN 9780520974234.
  7. ^ Agnihotri, V.K (1988). Indian History. pp. B-131. ISBN 9788184245684.
  8. ^ Rizvi, S.A.A (1987). The Wonder That Was India. p. 69. ISBN 9788184245684. The independent kingdom of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan, son of Sadharan, a Jat convert to Islam.
  9. ^ Kapadia, Aparna (16 May 2018). Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-107-15331-8.
  10. ^ Misra, Satish Ch. (1960). "MUZAFFAR SHAH, THE FOUNDER OF THE DYNASTY OF THE SULTANS OF GUJARAT—AN APPRECIATION". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 23: 163–167. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44304056.
  11. ^ Taylor 1902, p. 2.
  12. ^ Nayak 1982, p. 66.
  13. ^ Taylor 1902, pp. 3.
  14. ^ a b Taylor 1902, pp. 4.
  15. ^ a b Campbell 1896, p. 233.
  16. ^ a b c Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 155–7
  17. ^ a b Taylor 1902, pp. 5.
  18. ^ a b c Campbell 1896, p. 234.
  19. ^ a b Taylor 1902, pp. 6–7.
  20. ^ a b Nayak 1982, pp. 66–73.
  21. ^ a b Campbell 1896, p. 235.
  22. ^ a b Campbell 1896, p. 236.

Bibliography

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