Self-esteem

For The Offspring song, see Self-Esteem.

In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth includes a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree.

Self-esteem involves both self-relevant beliefs (e.g., "I am competent/incompetent") and associated self-relevant emotions (for example: triumph/despair, pride/shame). It also finds expression in behavior (e.g., assertiveness/timorousness, confidence/caution). In addition, one can construe self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic (trait self-esteem) or as a temporary psychological condition (state self-esteem). Finally, self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (e.g., "I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global extent (for example: "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general").

Major definitions of self-esteem

The term "self-esteem", one of the oldest concepts in psychology, first appeared as a coinage of American psychologist and philosopher William James in 1890. It involves one's mental perception of one's qualities, not of one's physical features.

Self-esteem has become the third most frequently occurring theme in psychological literature: as of 2003 over 25,000 articles, chapters, and books referred to the topic.

Given a long and varied history, the term has, unsurprisingly, no less than three major types of definitions in the field, each of which has generated its own tradition of research, findings, and practical applications.

1. The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life of importance to a given individual by the failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions”. Problems with this approach come from making self-esteem contingent upon success: this implies inherent instability because failure can occur at any moment.
2. In the mid 1960s Maurice Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness, measurable by self-report testing. This became the most frequently used definition for research, but involves problems of boundary-definition, making self-esteem indistinguishable from such things as narcissism or simple bragging.

• Nathaniel Branden in 1969 briefly defined self-esteem as "…the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness". This two-factor approach, as some have also called it, provides a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone.

In Branden’s description (1969) self-esteem includes the following primary properties:

1. self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., "…it makes an essential contribution to the life process", "…is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival."
2. self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their consciousness
3. something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions

Measurement

For the purposes of empirical research, psychologists typically assess self-esteem by a self-report questionnaire yielding a quantitative result. They establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire prior to its use.

Maslow's approach

Maslow described two kinds of esteem needs - the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect. Self-esteem entails competence, confidence, mastery, achievement, independence, and freedom. Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation. Without the fulfillment of these needs, an individual feels discouraged, weak and inferior. For most people, the need for regard from others diminshes with age (because they have already received it) and the need for self-regard becomes more important.

Increasing One's Self-Esteem

A number of methods have been widely-used to increase one's self-esteem. These include:

• karate
• yoga
• psychotherapy
• meditation
• spiritual or religious activities

Quality and level of self-esteem

Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. Self-esteem can be high but fragile (e.g., narcissism) and low but stable. (e.g., humility). However, the quality of self-esteem can be indirectly assessed in several ways: (I) in terms of its constancy over time (stability), (II) in terms of its independence upon particular conditions being met (non-contingency), and (III) in terms of how ingrained it is at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automaticity).

Criticisms

Critics see the all pervading importance given to self-esteem in popular culture and in modern psychology as misleading and over-positive. A review of self-esteem literature by Roy Baumeister confirmed that high self-regard per se is not necessarily good nor does it translate into higher estimates by others of a person's intellect, appearance or virtue. Self-esteem as panacea is "a very compelling illusion," because it correlates with happiness and other good things, says Baumeister, but psychologists "were a little too eager in promoting the program before the data were in." Some social constructionists argue that modern day America with its overwhelming cultural bias towards self-enhancement has fabricated and validated the dogma of self-esteem as a universal human goal that all must strive towards perfecting. This fails to consider the absence of such an emphasis in other flourishing cultures, where high self-esteem is not as celebrated and central a concept.

Psychological literature and popular culture both concentrate on the presence or absence of high self-esteem, however there is evidence that the overemphasis on the self-esteem mantra can lead to rapid falls when the self is invalidated in the domains that one considers important. In addition this pursuit may have negative consequences on the welfare of society as a whole. Eastern philosophy, particularly Buddhist and Hindu thought, see the self in its limited form as illusory; the 'true self' is perceived to be a sublime and transcendent entity, whose nature is hidden from the limited or egoic self.

See also the study in this area by Jean M. Twenge: Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled--and More Miserable Than Ever Before, Free press: 2007. ISBN 978-0743276986

Self-esteem, grades and relationships

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s Americans assumed as a matter of course that a student's self-esteem was a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. That being the case, many American groups created programs to increase the self-esteem of students, assuming that grades would increase, conflicts would decrease, and that this would lead to a happier and more successful life. Until the 1990s little peer-reviewed and controlled research was done on this topic.

The concept of self-improvement has undergone dramatic change since 1911, when Ambrose Bierce mockingly defined self-esteem as "an erroneous appraisement." Good and bad character are now known as "personality differences". Rights have replaced responsibilities. The research on egocentrism and ethnocentrism that informed discussion of human growth and development in the mid-20th century is ignored; indeed, the terms themselves are considered politically incorrect. A revolution has taken place in the vocabulary of self. Words that imply responsibility or accountability—self-criticism, self-denial, self-discipline, self-control, self-effacement, self-mastery, self-reproach, and self-sacrifice — are no longer in fashion. The language most in favor is that which exalts the self — self-expression, self-assertion, self-indulgence, self-realization, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-love, and the ubiquitous self-esteem.

— Ruggiero, 2000

Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.

High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other.

Bullying, violence and murder

Some of the most interesting results of recent studies center on the relationships between bullying, violence, and self-esteem. It used to be assumed that bullies acted violently towards others because they suffered from low self-esteem (although no controlled studies were offered to back up this position).

These findings suggest that the low-esteem theory is wrong. But none involves what social psychologists regard as the most convincing form of evidence: controlled laboratory experiments. When we conducted our initial review of the literature, we uncovered no lab studies that probed the link between self-esteem and aggression.

— Baumeister, 2001

In contrast to old beliefs, recent research indicates that bullies act the way that they do because they suffer from unearned high self-esteem.

Violent criminals often describe themselves as superior to others - as special, elite persons who deserve preferential treatment. Many murders and assaults are committed in response to blows to self-esteem such as insults and humiliation. (To be sure, some perpetrators live in settings where insults threaten more than their opinions of themselves. Esteem and respect are linked to status in the social hierarchy, and to put someone down can have tangible and even life-threatening consequences.)

The same conclusion has emerged from studies of other categories of violent people. Street-gang members have been reported to hold favourable opinions of themselves and turn to violence when these estimations are shaken. Playground bullies regard themselves as superior to other children; low self-esteem is found among the victims of bullies, but not among bullies themselves. Violent groups generally have overt belief systems that emphasise their superiority over others.

— Baumeister, 2001

The presence of superiority-complexes can be seen both in individual cases, such as the criminals Baumeister studied, and in whole societies, such as Germany under the Nazi regime.

The findings of this research does not take into account that the concept of self-esteem has not been clearly defined and that there are differing views of the precise definition of self-esteem. In his own work, Baumeister often uses a "common use" definition: self-esteem is how you regard yourself (or how you appear to regard yourself) regardless of how this view was cultivated. Other psychologists believe that a "self esteem" that depends on external validation of the self (or other people's approval), such as what seems to be relevant in the discussion of violent people, is not, in fact, "true" self-esteem. Nathaniel Branden labelled this 'pseudo self-esteem', arguing that true self-esteem comes from internal sources, such as self responsibility, self sufficiency and the knowledge of one's own competence and capablity to deal with obstacles and adversity, regardless of what other people think.

Psychologists who agree with this view dismiss Baumeister's findings and say that what he mistakes as "high self-esteem" in criminals is in fact narcissism and because it is an inflated opinion of self that is built on shaky grounds and that violence comes when that opinion is threatened. Those with "true" self-esteem who valued themselves and believed wholly in their own competence and worth would have no need to resort to violence or indeed have any need to believe in superiority or prove superiority.

See also

• Hubris
• Narcissism
• Self image
• Self (psychology)
• Emotional intelligence, Emotional competence
• Social skills
• Intercultural competence
• Sociometer

References

• Roy F. Baumeister, "Violent Pride", in Scientific American, 284, No. 4, pages 96–101; April 2001.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?", Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4 (1), pages 1–44; May 2003.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth" Scientific American, January 2005.
• Barbara Lerner, "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox," American Educator, Winter 1985.
• Andrew M. Mecca, Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos (Eds.) The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989.
• Ruggiero, Vincent R. "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" American Educator, Summer 2000.
• Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Sage handbook of social psychology (pp.110-138). London: Sage Publications.
• Baumeister, R., Smart, L. & Boden, J. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.
• Branden, N. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Bantam.
• Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 392–414.
• James, W. (1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)
• Mruk, C. (2006). Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.
• Rodewalt, F. & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66–70.
• Twenge, Jean M. (2007). Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled — and More Miserable Than Ever Before. Free Press. ISBN 978-0743276986

External links

• Self-Esteem and Narcissism: Implications for Practice
• A Buddhist View on Lack of Self-confidence
• Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth
• Guide To Building Self Esteem
• The costs and causes of low self-esteem
• "Our Urgent Need For Self-Esteem" by Nathaniel Branden
• "The Trouble With Self-Esteem" by Lauren Slater, New York Times, February 3, 2002