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Abstinence-based education programs aim to inform adolescents of [[Recreational drug use|illicit drug use]] in an effort to prevent illegal drug use while highlighting the dangers of [[substance abuse|problematic substance use]] and strongly emphasizing [[abstinence]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Midford |first1=Richard |title=Is Australia 'fair dinkum' about drug education in schools?* |journal=Drug and Alcohol Review |date=2007 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=421–427 |doi=10.1080/09595230701373842 |pmid=17564879 }}</ref>
Abstinence-based education programs aim to inform adolescents of [[Recreational drug use|illicit drug use]] in an effort to prevent illegal drug use while highlighting the dangers of [[substance abuse|problematic substance use]] and strongly emphasizing [[abstinence]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Midford |first1=Richard |title=Is Australia 'fair dinkum' about drug education in schools?* |journal=Drug and Alcohol Review |date=2007 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=421–427 |doi=10.1080/09595230701373842 |pmid=17564879 }}</ref>


Many studies have found that school-based abstinence education programs such as [[Drug Abuse Resistance Education|D.A.R.E.]] did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study discovered that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Rosenbaum |first=Dennis P. |last2=Hanson |first2=Gordon S. |date=1998-11 |title=Assessing the Effects of School-Based Drug Education: A Six-Year Multilevel Analysis of Project D.A.R.E. |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022427898035004002 |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency |language=en |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=381–412 |doi=10.1177/0022427898035004002 |issn=0022-4278}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Clayton |first=R. R. |last2=Cattarello |first2=A. M. |last3=Johnstone |first3=B. M. |date=1996 |title=The effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (project DARE): 5-year follow-up results |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8781009/ |journal=Preventive Medicine |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1006/pmed.1996.0061 |issn=0091-7435 |pmid=8781009}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=West |first=Steven L. |last2=O’Neal |first2=Keri K. |date=2004-6 |title=Project D.A.R.E. Outcome Effectiveness Revisited |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448384/ |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=1027–1029 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1448384 |pmid=15249310}}</ref>
The prevalence of abstinence-based programs declined throughout the early 21st-century following an uptick in substance use and a rise in the opioid crisis.


The [[Australian Government]] has implemented a range of drug education programs through the [[National Drug Education Strategy (NDES)]] by providing schools with effective drug education programmes. The program aims to manage drug related issues and incidents within schools.<ref name=":1" />
The [[Australian Government]] has implemented a range of drug education programs through the National Drug Education Strategy (NDES) by providing schools with effective drug education programs. The program aims to manage drug related issues and incidents within schools.<ref name=":1" />


On 6 December 2015 the [[Australian Government Department of Health]] launched the Positive Choices portal as part of its response to the findings from the National Ice Taskforce report.<ref>Grass roots a key to tackling ice https://www.health.gov.au/internet/ministers/publishing.nsf/Content/health-mediarel-yr2015-nash053.htm</ref><ref>Prime Minister of Australia, JOINT DOORSTOP INTERVIEW, SYDNEY https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2015-12-06/joint-doorstop-interview-sydney</ref> Positive Choices is an online portal that facilitates access to interactive evidence-based drug education resources and prevention programs for school communities. Positive Choices builds on existing drug education resources developed by researchers at the [[National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre]] such as the [https://ourfuturesinstitute.org.au/climate-schools-is-now-ourfutures-institute-2 Climate Schools] (now called [http://www.Ourfuturesinstitute.org.au OurFutures]
On 6 December 2015 the [[Australian Government Department of Health]] launched the Positive Choices portal as part of its response to the findings from the National Ice Taskforce report.<ref>Grass roots a key to tackling ice https://www.health.gov.au/internet/ministers/publishing.nsf/Content/health-mediarel-yr2015-nash053.htm</ref><ref>Prime Minister of Australia, JOINT DOORSTOP INTERVIEW, SYDNEY https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2015-12-06/joint-doorstop-interview-sydney</ref> Positive Choices is an online portal that facilitates access to interactive evidence-based drug education resources and prevention programs for school communities. Positive Choices builds on existing drug education resources developed by researchers at the [[National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre]] such as the [https://ourfuturesinstitute.org.au/climate-schools-is-now-ourfutures-institute-2 Climate Schools] (now called [http://www.Ourfuturesinstitute.org.au OurFutures]
) programs that have been proven to reduce alcohol and drug related harms and increase student well-being.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Champion |first1=Katrina E |last2=Newton |first2=Nicola C |last3=Stapinski |first3=Lexine |last4=Slade |first4=Tim |last5=Barrett |first5=Emma L |last6=Teesson |first6=Maree |title=A cross-validation trial of an Internet-based prevention program for alcohol and cannabis: Preliminary results from a cluster randomised controlled trial |journal=Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |date=January 2016 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1177/0004867415577435 |pmid=25801662 |s2cid=23887364 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Nicola C. |last2=Teesson |first2=Maree |last3=Vogl |first3=Laura E. |last4=Andrews |first4=Gavin |title=Internet-based prevention for alcohol and cannabis use: final results of the Climate Schools course: Internet-based drug prevention |journal=Addiction |date=10 March 2010 |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=749–759 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02853.x |pmid=20148791 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Nicola C. |last2=Andrews |first2=Gavin |last3=Teesson |first3=Maree |last4=Vogl |first4=Laura E. |title=Delivering prevention for alcohol and cannabis using the internet: A cluster randomised controlled trial |journal=Preventive Medicine |date=June 2009 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=579–584 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.04.009 |pmid=19389420 }}</ref>
) programs that have been proven to reduce alcohol and drug related harms and increase student well-being.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Champion |first1=Katrina E |last2=Newton |first2=Nicola C |last3=Stapinski |first3=Lexine |last4=Slade |first4=Tim |last5=Barrett |first5=Emma L |last6=Teesson |first6=Maree |title=A cross-validation trial of an Internet-based prevention program for alcohol and cannabis: Preliminary results from a cluster randomised controlled trial |journal=Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |date=January 2016 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1177/0004867415577435 |pmid=25801662 |s2cid=23887364 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Nicola C. |last2=Teesson |first2=Maree |last3=Vogl |first3=Laura E. |last4=Andrews |first4=Gavin |title=Internet-based prevention for alcohol and cannabis use: final results of the Climate Schools course: Internet-based drug prevention |journal=Addiction |date=10 March 2010 |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=749–759 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02853.x |pmid=20148791 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Nicola C. |last2=Andrews |first2=Gavin |last3=Teesson |first3=Maree |last4=Vogl |first4=Laura E. |title=Delivering prevention for alcohol and cannabis using the internet: A cluster randomised controlled trial |journal=Preventive Medicine |date=June 2009 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=579–584 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.04.009 |pmid=19389420 }}</ref>


⚫
In addition to government-funded programs, a number of not-for-profit organisations such as [[Life Education Australia]] provide drug education programs to adolescents. These preventative programs aim to deliver a progressive approach that will motivate and encourage young people to make positive decisions in life. Emphasis within these programs is also placed in focusing on deterring [[peer pressure]] as a means of empowering adolescents and promoting autonomy. This approach reaches 750,000 primary and secondary students in Australia each year.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Joyce|first=R|author2=O’Connor, L.|title=Life Education: Research and Evaluation.|journal=Life Education|year=2008}}{{vs|date=February 2021}}</ref>
The [[Australian Department of Health and Aging]] identified that analgesics (90%), alcohol (80–90%) and tobacco (30–60%) were the most widely utilised substances among adolescents. In addition to this, cannabis was another commonly used illicit substance that accounted for 33% usage among adolescents aged 14–17 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanton |first1=Bonnie |title=School drug education in New South Wales: moral panic and the individualisation of youth drug use |journal=Social Alternatives |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=January 2005 |pages=50–54 |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/IELAPA.200602819 }}</ref>


The prevalence of abstinence-based programs declined throughout the early 21st-century following an uptick in substance use and the rise of the [[Opioid epidemic|opioid epidemic.]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gaines, Lee V.; Cohen, Nicole |first= |date=December 19, 2023 |title='Just say no' didn't actually protect students from drugs. Here's what could |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/11/09/1211217460/fentanyl-drug-education-dare |url-status=live |access-date=March 18, 2024 |website=NPR}}</ref>
⚫
In addition, to government-funded programs, a number of not-for-profit organisations (such as [[Life Education Australia]] also provide drug education programs to adolescents. These preventative programs aim to deliver a progressive approach that will motivate and encourage young people to make positive decisions in life. Emphasis within these programs is also placed in focusing on deterring [[peer pressure]] as a means of empowering adolescents and promoting autonomy. This approach reaches 750,000 primary and secondary students in Australia each year.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Joyce|first=R|author2=O’Connor, L.|title=Life Education: Research and Evaluation.|journal=Life Education|year=2008}}{{vs|date=February 2021}}</ref>


=== D.A.R.E. ===
=== D.A.R.E. ===
{{main|Drug Abuse Resistance Education}}
{{main|Drug Abuse Resistance Education}}


D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a program in the United States implemented in 5th grade school classrooms to educate students on the effects of drugs and temptations they may encounter, particularly in later education. The police officers who administer the program can also serve as community models for students.<ref name="Dukes 483–500">{{Cite journal|last1=Dukes|first1=Richard L.|last2=Stein|first2=Judith A.|last3=Ullman|first3=Jodie A.|date=August 1997|title=Long-Term Impact of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)|journal=Evaluation Review|volume=21|issue=4|pages=483–500|doi=10.1177/0193841X9702100404|pmid=10183294|s2cid=27699072}}</ref> There is no scientific evidence that preventive drug education such as D.A.R.E. is effective.<ref name="jb63">Benze, James G. (2005), p. 63</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/HSYouthtrends.html|title=NIDA InfoFacts: High School and Youth Trends|publisher=National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH|access-date=2007-04-04}}</ref><ref name="pbsdrugs">{{cite news|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/interviews/kleber.html|title=Interview: Dr. Herbert Kleber|access-date=2007-06-12|publisher=PBS|quote=The politics of the Reagan years and the Bush years probably made it somewhat harder to get treatment expanded, but at the same time, it may have decreased initiation and use. For example, marijuana went from thirty-three percent of high-school seniors in 1980 to twelve percent in 1991.}}</ref><ref name="SciAm14">{{cite news |last1=Lilienfeld |first1=Scott O. |last2=Arkowitz |first2=Hal |title=Why 'Just Say No' Doesn't Work |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-just-say-no-doesnt-work/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 January 2014 }}</ref>
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a program in the United States implemented in 5th grade school classrooms to educate students on the effects of drugs and temptations they may encounter, particularly in later education. The police officers who administer the program can also serve as community models for students.<ref name="Dukes 483–500">{{Cite journal|last1=Dukes|first1=Richard L.|last2=Stein|first2=Judith A.|last3=Ullman|first3=Jodie A.|date=August 1997|title=Long-Term Impact of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)|journal=Evaluation Review|volume=21|issue=4|pages=483–500|doi=10.1177/0193841X9702100404|pmid=10183294|s2cid=27699072}}</ref> There is no scientific evidence that preventive drug education such as D.A.R.E. is effective, and some evidence that it may actually increase substance use rates in suburban teenagers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="jb63">Benze, James G. (2005), p. 63</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/HSYouthtrends.html|title=NIDA InfoFacts: High School and Youth Trends|publisher=National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH|access-date=2007-04-04}}</ref><ref name="pbsdrugs">{{cite news|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/interviews/kleber.html|title=Interview: Dr. Herbert Kleber|access-date=2007-06-12|publisher=PBS|quote=The politics of the Reagan years and the Bush years probably made it somewhat harder to get treatment expanded, but at the same time, it may have decreased initiation and use. For example, marijuana went from thirty-three percent of high-school seniors in 1980 to twelve percent in 1991.}}</ref><ref name="SciAm14">{{cite news |last1=Lilienfeld |first1=Scott O. |last2=Arkowitz |first2=Hal |title=Why 'Just Say No' Doesn't Work |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-just-say-no-doesnt-work/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 January 2014 }}</ref>


== Harm reduction-based education ==
== Harm reduction-based education ==
Line 41: Line 41:
==Effectiveness==
==Effectiveness==
A systematic review of abstinence-based school drug education published in 2003 found mixed results on its effectiveness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McBride |first=N. |date=2003-12-01 |title=A systematic review of school drug education |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyf050 |journal=Health Education Research |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=729–742 |doi=10.1093/her/cyf050 |issn=1465-3648}}</ref>
A systematic review of abstinence-based school drug education published in 2003 found mixed results on its effectiveness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McBride |first=N. |date=2003-12-01 |title=A systematic review of school drug education |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyf050 |journal=Health Education Research |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=729–742 |doi=10.1093/her/cyf050 |issn=1465-3648}}</ref>

Many studies conducted in the early 2000s found that school-based abstinence education programs such as [[Drug Abuse Resistance Education|D.A.R.E.]] did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study concluded that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />


A 2012 study published in the ''journal of Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy came'' to the conclusion that students aged 13 to 15 who completed a drug and alcohol prevention program were less likely to develop a drug or alcohol problem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Midford|first=Richard|s2cid=71469639|display-authors=etal|date=April 2012|title=Alcohol Prevention: What Can Be Expected of a Harm Reduction? Focused School Drug Education Program?|journal=Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy|volume=19|issue=2|pages=102–110|doi=10.3109/09687637.2011.639412}}</ref>
A 2012 study published in the ''journal of Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy came'' to the conclusion that students aged 13 to 15 who completed a drug and alcohol prevention program were less likely to develop a drug or alcohol problem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Midford|first=Richard|s2cid=71469639|display-authors=etal|date=April 2012|title=Alcohol Prevention: What Can Be Expected of a Harm Reduction? Focused School Drug Education Program?|journal=Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy|volume=19|issue=2|pages=102–110|doi=10.3109/09687637.2011.639412}}</ref>

Revision as of 22:37, 18 March 2024

Drug education is the planned provision of information, guidelines, resources, and skills relevant to living in a world where psychoactive substances are widely available and commonly used for a variety of both medical and non-medical purposes, some of which may lead to harms such as overdose, injury, infectious disease (such as HIV or hepatitis C), or addiction. The two primary [1][2]

Drug education campaigns and programs

Drug education can be given in numerous forms, some more effective than others. Examples include advertising and awareness raising campaigns such as the UK Government's FRANK campaign or the US "media campaign".[3] In addition there are school based drug education programs like DARE or that currently being evaluated by the UK Blueprint Programme.[4] In efforts to prevent substance abuse, drug education may perpetuate myths and stereotypes about psychoactive substances and people who use them.[5]

Drug education can also take less explicit forms; an example of this is the Positive Futures Programme, funded by the UK government as part of its drug strategy. This programme uses sport and the arts as catalysts to engage young people on their own turf, putting them in contact with positive role models (coaches/trained youth workers). After building a trusting relationship with a young person, these role models can gradually change attitudes towards drug use and steer the young person back into education, training and employment. This approach reaches young people who have dropped out of mainstream education. It also has additional benefits for the community in reduced crime and anti-social behaviour.[6]

Abstinence-based drug education

Abstinence-based drug education began with the anti-alcohol "temperance education" programmes of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the United States and Canada in the late 19th century.[7] In many respects, the WCTU's progressive education agenda set the template for much of what has been done since in the name of drug education.[8]

Abstinence-based education programs aim to inform adolescents of illicit drug use in an effort to prevent illegal drug use while highlighting the dangers of problematic substance use and strongly emphasizing abstinence.[1]

Many studies have found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study discovered that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.[9][10][11]

The Australian Government has implemented a range of drug education programs through the National Drug Education Strategy (NDES) by providing schools with effective drug education programs. The program aims to manage drug related issues and incidents within schools.[2]

On 6 December 2015 the Australian Government Department of Health launched the Positive Choices portal as part of its response to the findings from the National Ice Taskforce report.[12][13] Positive Choices is an online portal that facilitates access to interactive evidence-based drug education resources and prevention programs for school communities. Positive Choices builds on existing drug education resources developed by researchers at the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre such as the Climate Schools (now called OurFutures ) programs that have been proven to reduce alcohol and drug related harms and increase student well-being.[14][15][16]

In addition to government-funded programs, a number of not-for-profit organisations such as Life Education Australia provide drug education programs to adolescents. These preventative programs aim to deliver a progressive approach that will motivate and encourage young people to make positive decisions in life. Emphasis within these programs is also placed in focusing on deterring peer pressure as a means of empowering adolescents and promoting autonomy. This approach reaches 750,000 primary and secondary students in Australia each year.[17]

The prevalence of abstinence-based programs declined throughout the early 21st-century following an uptick in substance use and the rise of the opioid epidemic.[18]

D.A.R.E.

Main article: Drug Abuse Resistance Education

D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a program in the United States implemented in 5th grade school classrooms to educate students on the effects of drugs and temptations they may encounter, particularly in later education. The police officers who administer the program can also serve as community models for students.[19] There is no scientific evidence that preventive drug education such as D.A.R.E. is effective, and some evidence that it may actually increase substance use rates in suburban teenagers.[9][20][21][22][23]

Harm reduction-based education

Harm reduction education emerged as an alternative to abstinence-based education in the late 20th-century and early 21st-century. Rather than encouraging complete abstinence and aiming to completely eradicate drug use in society, harm reduction education accepts that drug use is inevitable in modern society. It aims to reduce the harms associated with drug use by providing individuals with comprehensive information about the nature of substance use. Harm reduction education aims to improve health, social, and economic measurements rather than aiming primarily to reduce the rate of drug consumption.[24]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, websites dedicated to harm reduction education such as the educational database Erowid and the harm reduction forum Bluelight emerged. Erowid hosts information about hundreds of psychoactive plants and substances, while Bluelight is an online forum on which users discuss harm reduction and drug use. Both sites collectively host about 100,000 experience reports.[25][26]

By the early 2020s, many organizations such as the US government's SAMHSA had shifted from abstinence-based education to harm reduction-based education.[27]

Effectiveness

A systematic review of abstinence-based school drug education published in 2003 found mixed results on its effectiveness.[28]

Many studies conducted in the early 2000s found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study concluded that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use.[9][10][11]

A 2012 study published in the journal of Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy came to the conclusion that students aged 13 to 15 who completed a drug and alcohol prevention program were less likely to develop a drug or alcohol problem.[29]

Future improvements

Past research into drug education has indicated that effective drug education must involve engaging, interactive learning strategies that stimulate higher-order thinking, promote learning and be transferable to real life circumstances.[30]

Studies on school-based programs indicated that professional training and support may be required to increase the effectiveness of teaching staff and the uniform implementation of drug curriculum.[31]

A study in 2017 on youth-targeted harm reduction education found that effective harm reduction programming must utilize relatable and meaningful approaches and be connected to youth's lived experience.[32]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Midford, Richard (2007). "Is Australia 'fair dinkum' about drug education in schools?*". Drug and Alcohol Review. 26 (4): 421–427. doi:10.1080/09595230701373842. PMID 17564879.
  2. ^ a b "National Schools Drug Education Strategy 2009" (PDF). Northern Territory Government. Department of Education and Children Services. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  3. ^ "Media campaign". Archived from the original on 2002-08-09. Retrieved 2008-03-19.
  4. ^ Blueprint, Home office.gov
  5. ^ Tupper, Kenneth (2008). "Drugs, discourses and education: A critical discourse analysis of a high school drug education text". Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education. 29 (2): 223–238. doi:10.1080/01596300801966864. S2CID 143364728.
  6. ^ Positive Futures Programme
  7. ^ Beck, Jerome (26 July 2016). "100 Years of 'Just Say No' Versus 'Just Say Know': Reevaluating Drug Education Goals for the Coming Century". Evaluation Review. 22 (1): 15–45. doi:10.1177/0193841X9802200102. PMID 10183299. S2CID 25765373.
  8. ^ Tupper, Kenneth W. (3 April 2014). "Sex, drugs and the honour roll: the perennial challenges of addressing moral purity issues in schools". Critical Public Health. 24 (2): 115–131. doi:10.1080/09581596.2013.862517. S2CID 143931197.
  9. ^ a b c Rosenbaum, Dennis P.; Hanson, Gordon S. (1998-11). "Assessing the Effects of School-Based Drug Education: A Six-Year Multilevel Analysis of Project D.A.R.E." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 35 (4): 381–412. doi:10.1177/0022427898035004002. ISSN 0022-4278. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ a b Clayton, R. R.; Cattarello, A. M.; Johnstone, B. M. (1996). "The effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (project DARE): 5-year follow-up results". Preventive Medicine. 25 (3): 307–318. doi:10.1006/pmed.1996.0061. ISSN 0091-7435. PMID 8781009.
  11. ^ a b West, Steven L.; O’Neal, Keri K. (2004-6). "Project D.A.R.E. Outcome Effectiveness Revisited". American Journal of Public Health. 94 (6): 1027–1029. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1448384. PMID 15249310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Grass roots a key to tackling ice https://www.health.gov.au/internet/ministers/publishing.nsf/Content/health-mediarel-yr2015-nash053.htm
  13. ^ Prime Minister of Australia, JOINT DOORSTOP INTERVIEW, SYDNEY https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2015-12-06/joint-doorstop-interview-sydney
  14. ^ Champion, Katrina E; Newton, Nicola C; Stapinski, Lexine; Slade, Tim; Barrett, Emma L; Teesson, Maree (January 2016). "A cross-validation trial of an Internet-based prevention program for alcohol and cannabis: Preliminary results from a cluster randomised controlled trial". Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 50 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1177/0004867415577435. PMID 25801662. S2CID 23887364.
  15. ^ Newton, Nicola C.; Teesson, Maree; Vogl, Laura E.; Andrews, Gavin (10 March 2010). "Internet-based prevention for alcohol and cannabis use: final results of the Climate Schools course: Internet-based drug prevention". Addiction. 105 (4): 749–759. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02853.x. PMID 20148791.
  16. ^ Newton, Nicola C.; Andrews, Gavin; Teesson, Maree; Vogl, Laura E. (June 2009). "Delivering prevention for alcohol and cannabis using the internet: A cluster randomised controlled trial". Preventive Medicine. 48 (6): 579–584. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.04.009. PMID 19389420.
  17. ^ Joyce, R; O’Connor, L. (2008). "Life Education: Research and Evaluation". Life Education.[verification needed]
  18. ^ Gaines, Lee V.; Cohen, Nicole (December 19, 2023). "'Just say no' didn't actually protect students from drugs. Here's what could". NPR. Retrieved March 18, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ Dukes, Richard L.; Stein, Judith A.; Ullman, Jodie A. (August 1997). "Long-Term Impact of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)". Evaluation Review. 21 (4): 483–500. doi:10.1177/0193841X9702100404. PMID 10183294. S2CID 27699072.
  20. ^ Benze, James G. (2005), p. 63
  21. ^ "NIDA InfoFacts: High School and Youth Trends". National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
  22. ^ "Interview: Dr. Herbert Kleber". PBS. Retrieved 2007-06-12. The politics of the Reagan years and the Bush years probably made it somewhat harder to get treatment expanded, but at the same time, it may have decreased initiation and use. For example, marijuana went from thirty-three percent of high-school seniors in 1980 to twelve percent in 1991.
  23. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Arkowitz, Hal (1 January 2014). "Why 'Just Say No' Doesn't Work". Scientific American.
  24. ^ "Harm reduction: An approach to reducing risky health behaviours in adolescents". Paediatrics & Child Health. 13 (1): 53–56. 2008-1. ISSN 1205-7088. PMC 2528824. PMID 19119355. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Murguia-1; Tackett-Gibson-2; Lessem-3;, Edward-1; Melissa-2; Ann-3; (2007). Real Drugs in a Virtual World: Drug Discourse and Community Online. [[LexingtonBooks]. ISBN 9780739114551. Archived from the original on July 12, 2023. Retrieved June 24, 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Chiauzzi, Emil; Dasmahapatra, Pronabesh; Lobo, Kimberly; Barratt, Monica J. (2013-06). "Participatory research with an online drug forum: a survey of user characteristics, information sharing, and harm reduction views". Substance Use & Misuse. 48 (8): 661–670. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.800117. ISSN 1532-2491. PMID 23750771. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ "Harm Reduction". SAMHSA. April 24, 2023. Retrieved March 18, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  28. ^ McBride, N. (2003-12-01). "A systematic review of school drug education". Health Education Research. 18 (6): 729–742. doi:10.1093/her/cyf050. ISSN 1465-3648.
  29. ^ Midford, Richard; et al. (April 2012). "Alcohol Prevention: What Can Be Expected of a Harm Reduction? Focused School Drug Education Program?". Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy. 19 (2): 102–110. doi:10.3109/09687637.2011.639412. S2CID 71469639.
  30. ^ Cahill, Helen W. (November 2007). "Challenges in adopting evidence-based school drug education programmes". Drug and Alcohol Review. 26 (6): 673–679. doi:10.1080/09595230701613593. PMID 17943528.
  31. ^ Cahill, Helen W. (November 2007). "Challenges in adopting evidence-based school drug education programmes". Drug and Alcohol Review. 26 (6): 673–679. doi:10.1080/09595230701613593. PMID 17943528.
  32. ^ "Helping academic staff to integrate professional skills", Integrating Key Skills in Higher Education, Routledge, pp. 183–192, 2013-10-11, ISBN 978-1-315-04235-0, retrieved 2024-03-18
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Teaching Elementary School Health Education/Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs
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