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=== New Policies of Zhangzhou ===
=== New Policies of Zhangzhou ===
[[File:Monument of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian.jpg|thumb|The Monument of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian, also known as the Monument of Universal Love, is located in Zhongshan Park of Zhangzhou. It is inscribed with the words "liberty", "equality", "fraternity", and "mutual aid" on its four sides.|right]]
[[File:Monument of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian.jpg|thumb|The Monument of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian, also known as the Monument of Universal Love, is located in Zhongshan Park of Zhangzhou. It is inscribed with the words "liberty", "equality", "fraternity", and "mutual aid" on its four sides.|right]]
Under the leadership of Chen Jiongming, a proponent of anarchism, Zhangzhou saw the construction of its first reinforced concrete bridge, the first four-lane cobblestone road, the first modern park (Zhangzhou First Park, now known as Zhangzhou Zhongshan Park), the first urban-rural road network, and the first bank. Additionally, a factory for the poor, a grand hotel for guests, and a [[Red-light district|special district for prostitutes]] were established. City walls were demolished to create roads, and advanced agricultural production equipment was introduced. At the entrance of Zhangzhou First Park,<ref>{{Cite book | author = 陈福霖（F. Gilbert Chan） | title = 南粤割据：从龙济光到陈济棠 | location = [[广州]] | publisher = 广东人民出版社 | date = 1989-11-01 | pages = 382 | ISBN = 9787218002828 | accessdate = 2023-06-26 | url = https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=0A82AAAAMAAJ&q=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&dq=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&hl=zh-CN&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy0MuN69__AhVRm1YBHae-BCcQ6AF6BAgGEAI | language = Simplified Chinese | quote = 城墙拆除改成道路，成立妓女户特区，道路拓宽、新屋不少 | archive-date = 2023-07-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230726233739/https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=0A82AAAAMAAJ&q=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&dq=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&hl=zh-CN&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy0MuN69__AhVRm1YBHae-BCcQ6AF6BAgGEAI }}</ref> a tall monument was erected, inscribed with the characters "[[liberty]]" ({{lang-zh|t=自由|p=zìyóu|link=no}}), "[[social equality|equality]]" ({{lang-zh|t=平等|p=pingděng|link=no}}), "[[Fraternity (philosophy)|fraternity]]" ({{lang-zh|t=博愛|p=bó'ài|link=no}}) and [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]] ({{lang-zh|t=互助|p=hùzhù|link=no}}), the four principles of the New Culture Movement.{{Sfn|Chen|1999|p=82}}
Under the leadership of Chen Jiongming, a proponent of anarchism, Zhangzhou saw the construction of its first reinforced concrete bridge, the first four-lane cobblestone road, the first modern park (Zhangzhou First Park, now known as Zhangzhou Zhongshan Park), the first urban-rural road network, and the first bank. Additionally, a factory for the poor, a grand hotel for guests, and a [[Red-light district|special district for prostitutes]] were established. City walls were demolished to create roads, and advanced agricultural production equipment was introduced. At the entrance of Zhangzhou First Park,<ref>{{Cite book | author = 陈福霖（F. Gilbert Chan） | title = 南粤割据：从龙济光到陈济棠 | location = [[广州]] | publisher = 广东人民出版社 | date = 1989-11-01 | pages = 382 | ISBN = 9787218002828 | accessdate = 2023-06-26 | url = https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=0A82AAAAMAAJ&q=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&dq=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&hl=zh-CN&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy0MuN69__AhVRm1YBHae-BCcQ6AF6BAgGEAI | language = Simplified Chinese | quote = 城墙拆除改成道路，成立妓女户特区，道路拓宽、新屋不少 | archive-date = 2023-07-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230726233739/https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=0A82AAAAMAAJ&q=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&dq=%E9%99%88%E7%82%AF%E6%98%8E+%E9%97%BD%E5%8D%97%E6%8A%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%BA+%E5%A6%93%E5%A5%B3&hl=zh-CN&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy0MuN69__AhVRm1YBHae-BCcQ6AF6BAgGEAI }}</ref> a tall monument was erected, inscribed with the characters "[[liberty]]" ({{lang-zh|t=自由|p=Zìyóu|link=no}}), "[[social equality|equality]]" ({{lang-zh|t=平等|p=Píngděng|link=no}}), "[[Fraternity (philosophy)|fraternity]]" ({{lang-zh|t=博愛|p=Bó'ài|link=no}}) and [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]] ({{lang-zh|t=互助|p=Hùzhù|link=no}}), the four principles of the New Culture Movement.{{Sfn|Chen|1999|p=82}}


Chen Jiongming actively recruited talents nationwide, including a group of "liberal socialists" (followers of Chinese anarchist [[Liu Shifu]]), to assist him in educational efforts and the establishment of a university. In the summer of 1919, Chen Jiongming hired Liang Bingxian from Guangzhou as the head of education. Additionally, he set up study centers and education commissioners in each county, reforming old textbooks. Chen Jiongming established modern schools in rural areas, aiming for "one school per village," banning private schools and setting up normal schools, general high schools, vocational schools, night schools for commoners, and women's home economics training institutes. In 1920, he also established women's normal training institutes and women's vocational schools, setting up more than 90 night schools in the same year. Hundreds of students were also sent from the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian to [[France]] for [[Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement|work-study programs]], including the later Chinese [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] leader {{ill|Zheng Chaolin|zh|郑超麟}}.<ref name=jy>{{Cite journal|author= 张慧卿 |url= https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFD2008&filename=NDSZ200804020&uid=WEEvREdxOWJmbC9oM1NjYkZCcDMwV001RHp2a3RaZFhGS1dXaXFFMG9KV0E=$R1yZ0H6jyaa0en3RxVUd8df-oHi7XMMDo7mtKT6mSmEvTuk11l2gFA!!&v=MDcxOTc3ekFLeW5ZZExHNEh0bk1xNDlIWklSOGVYMUx1eFlTN0RoMVQzcVRyV00xRnJDVVI3cWZaZWRzRnkvaFY= |title= 陈炯明与闽南护法区的政治革新|journal= 宁德师专学报(哲学社会科学版)|year= 2008 |issue= 87 |pages= 96-100 }}</ref>.
Chen Jiongming actively recruited talents nationwide, including a group of "liberal socialists" (followers of Chinese anarchist [[Liu Shifu]]), to assist him in educational efforts and the establishment of a university. In the summer of 1919, Chen Jiongming hired Liang Bingxian from Guangzhou as the head of education. Additionally, he set up study centers and education commissioners in each county, reforming old textbooks. Chen Jiongming established modern schools in rural areas, aiming for "one school per village," banning private schools and setting up normal schools, general high schools, vocational schools, night schools for commoners, and women's home economics training institutes. In 1920, he also established women's normal training institutes and women's vocational schools, setting up more than 90 night schools in the same year. Hundreds of students were also sent from the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian to [[France]] for [[Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement|work-study programs]], including the later Chinese [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] leader {{ill|Zheng Chaolin|zh|郑超麟}}.<ref name=jy>{{Cite journal|author= 张慧卿 |url= https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFD2008&filename=NDSZ200804020&uid=WEEvREdxOWJmbC9oM1NjYkZCcDMwV001RHp2a3RaZFhGS1dXaXFFMG9KV0E=$R1yZ0H6jyaa0en3RxVUd8df-oHi7XMMDo7mtKT6mSmEvTuk11l2gFA!!&v=MDcxOTc3ekFLeW5ZZExHNEh0bk1xNDlIWklSOGVYMUx1eFlTN0RoMVQzcVRyV00xRnJDVVI3cWZaZWRzRnkvaFY= |title= 陈炯明与闽南护法区的政治革新|journal= 宁德师专学报(哲学社会科学版)|year= 2008 |issue= 87 |pages= 96-100 }}</ref>.

Revision as of 13:47, 12 May 2024

Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian
Constitution Protection Region of Fujian
閩南護法區
福建護法區
1918–1920
Flag of
Flag
Map of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian      Areas stably controlled by the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian      Areas contested and influenced by the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian      The rest of Fujian Province
Map of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian
     Areas stably controlled by the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian
     Areas contested and influenced by the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian
     The rest of Fujian Province
CapitalZhangzhou
Common languagesStandard Chinese, Southern Min, Hakka Chinese, Gan Chinese, Shao–Jiang Min and Central Min
GovernmentAnarchist military government
Governor of Fujian 
• 1918–1920
Chen Jiongming
Governor of Tingzhang Circuit (汀漳道尹) 
• 1918–1920
Xiong Lue (熊略)
Military Governor of Tingzhang Circuit (汀漳鎮守使) 
• 1918–1920
Hong Zhaolin [zh]
Historical eraWarlord Era
• Formed
1 September 1918
• The Guangdong Army to assist Fujian withdrew to Guangdong
12 August 1920
CurrencyYinhao [zh] (銀毫)[1]

The Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian (Chinese: 閩南護法區; pinyin: Mǐnnán hùfǎ qū),[2][a] initially known as the Constitution Protection Region of Fujian (Chinese: 福建護法區; pinyin: Fújiàn hùfǎ qū),[4] was a de facto autonomous region of Republic of China established by the "Guangdong Army to assist Fujian" (Chinese: 援閩粵軍; pinyin: Yuán mǐn yuè jūn)[b] led by General Chen Jiongming in 26 counties of southern and western Fujian with Zhangzhou as its capital. The region implemented some policies with anarchist characteristics.[8]

History

Capture of Southern Fujian

By 1917, northern warlords had seized control of the Beiyang government. Revolutionaries in southern China responded by launching the Constitutional Protection Movement, calling for the restoration of the constitutional order.[9] In October 1917, Chen Jiongming was appointed as commander-in-chief of the Guangdong Army [zh], which was already planning a military expedition against the government.[10]

The warlords of the Anhui and Zhili cliques sent their forces south to pacify the rebellion in Guangdong, acting with the assistance of Fujian's military governor Li Houji [zh]. Chen responded by ordering the Guangdong Army to "assist Fujian" (Chinese: 援閩粵軍; pinyin: Yuanmin yuejun) and bring it under the rule of the Constitutional Protection Junta. They transferred to Shantou, where Chen began recruiting thousands of people into his army.[11] He established an arsenal in Shanwei, laid out an extensive military logistics network by building new roads and supply stations, and organised local militia to counter banditry and carry out guerrilla warfare against invading forces. He did this with little help from Guangdong's military governor Mo Rongxin, who denied him necessary funding, hoping to limit his growing influence.[12]

Li went ahead with his plans to attack Guangdong, recruiting thousands of people from Northern Fujian into his own army.[13] On May 1918, Li attacked Guangdong, but faced heavy resistance from Chen's Guangdong Army and guerrilla militias. In August, Chen's forces mounted a counteroffensive and quickly advanced into Fujian. By the end of the month,[14] they had captured the province's southern capital of Zhangzhou, which Chen established as his base of operations,[15] while Li's army held onto its territory in Xiamen. In November 1918, the two sides arranged a brief armistice.[14] Although Li received reinforcements from the north, the looting and arbitrary attacks carried out by the northern soldiers against the local population alienated the people of Fujian, who began cooperating with the Guangdong Army. By the end of 1918, Chen's numerically inferior forces had captured more than half of Fujian province.[16]

New Culture Movement

With a new base area in Minnan, Chen Jiongming began putting his ideas for reform into practice, building strong civilian institutions while maintaining his military strength.[17] By this time, members of the New Culture Movement had begun calling for far-reaching modernizing reforms, including democratization, humanitarianism, scientific progress and mutual assistance.[18] Chen's former teacher Zhu Zhixin invited members of the New Culture Movement to Zhangzhou, in order to carry out reforms, educate the populous and transform southern Fujian into a sustainable autonomous region. Chen himself believed that such a region could serve as a model for reforming the entire country, based on his federalist ideology.[19]

Cover of Minxing

Some of the new invitees established a semi-weekly magazine, Minxing[20] (Chinese: 閩星; Template:Lang-en), which was dedicated to discussion of reformist ideas; they also established a daily newspaper, Minxing rikan[20] (Chinese: 閩星日刊; Template:Lang-en), which reported on global and local affairs and criticised existing traditions.[21] Chen Jiongming himself frequently wrote for the magazine, penning critiques of the reform programmes of Kang Youwei and Dai Jitao, publishing letters to and from the Chinese Women's Association, and even contributing poems to the publication. Aiming to reach the greatest number of readers, the magazine's editor Chen Qiulin (陳秋霖) made sure that all its works were published in written vernacular Chinese.[22] The magazine published articles on many different subjects, including articles on sexuality, morality and religion; articles about the Russian Revolution, such as critiques of the Soviet Russian Constitution; and historical reports on Korean and Taiwanese independence struggles against the Empire of Japan.[23] It also included contributions from Zhu Zhixin, Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin, who respectively wrote about societal, commercial and environmental reforms.[24] Anarchists such as Liang Bingxian (梁冰弦) also contributed to the publication.[25]

Chen Jiongming wrote extensively in Minxing about his views on the New Culture movement's philosophy. He believed that China ought to follow a process of sociocultural evolution, based in mutual aid, which he believed would eventually transform the country into a stateless society of social equality. In order to achieve this, he advocated for widespread "thought reform", while cautioning against the use of indoctrination or brainwashing.[26] Chen also argued against individualism and nationalism, the latter of which he considered to be a way for "ambitious politicians" to "fool their people and bully the world", culminating in militarism and imperialism.[27] Influenced by a synthesis of Social Darwinism and anarchism, Chen concluded his anti-nationalist remarks by calling for a "socialism of all mankind", based in fraternity and mutual aid.[28] He believed that China could "work for the benefit of the world", but it had to start with internal reform, specifically thought reform.[29] Chen also wrote the manifesto of Minxing rikan, in which he outlined its aims of liberty, equality and mutual aid.[30]

New Policies of Zhangzhou

The Monument of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian, also known as the Monument of Universal Love, is located in Zhongshan Park of Zhangzhou. It is inscribed with the words "liberty", "equality", "fraternity", and "mutual aid" on its four sides.

Under the leadership of Chen Jiongming, a proponent of anarchism, Zhangzhou saw the construction of its first reinforced concrete bridge, the first four-lane cobblestone road, the first modern park (Zhangzhou First Park, now known as Zhangzhou Zhongshan Park), the first urban-rural road network, and the first bank. Additionally, a factory for the poor, a grand hotel for guests, and a special district for prostitutes were established. City walls were demolished to create roads, and advanced agricultural production equipment was introduced. At the entrance of Zhangzhou First Park,[31] a tall monument was erected, inscribed with the characters "liberty" (Chinese: 自由; pinyin: Zìyóu), "equality" (Chinese: 平等; pinyin: Píngděng), "fraternity" (Chinese: 博愛; pinyin: Bó'ài) and mutual aid (Chinese: 互助; pinyin: Hùzhù), the four principles of the New Culture Movement.[24]

Chen Jiongming actively recruited talents nationwide, including a group of "liberal socialists" (followers of Chinese anarchist Liu Shifu), to assist him in educational efforts and the establishment of a university. In the summer of 1919, Chen Jiongming hired Liang Bingxian from Guangzhou as the head of education. Additionally, he set up study centers and education commissioners in each county, reforming old textbooks. Chen Jiongming established modern schools in rural areas, aiming for "one school per village," banning private schools and setting up normal schools, general high schools, vocational schools, night schools for commoners, and women's home economics training institutes. In 1920, he also established women's normal training institutes and women's vocational schools, setting up more than 90 night schools in the same year. Hundreds of students were also sent from the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian to France for work-study programs, including the later Chinese Trotskyist leader Zheng Chaolin [zh].[32].

Withdrawal

The Guangdong Army conducted two years of construction in the protectorate, achieving remarkable results. The Comintern's publication, "Communist International," called Zhangzhou the center of revolution in southern China. On August 12, 1920, according to an agreement between Fujian and Guangdong, the Guangdong Army returned to Guangdong, and the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian was subsequently abolished.[33][34][35]

Relation with Soviet Russia

The achievements of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian attracted the attention of Soviet Russia. On April 29, 1920, General Alexey Potapov [ru] (also known as Lubo) who claimed to be a Soviet representative, met with Sun Yat-sen in Shanghai before visiting Chen Jiongming in Zhangzhou. Potapov brought a personal letter from Vladimir Lenin, expressing concern for the Chinese revolution and admiration and encouragement for Chen Jiongming. Potapov also conveyed Lenin's advice for Chen Jiongming to engage more in peasant movements and pay attention to mobilizing the masses. Chen Jiongming warmly welcomed Potapov and asked him to deliver a letter to Lenin. In the letter, Chen Jiongming expressed support for Lenin and his cause, hoping that "the new China and the new Russia will join hands like intimate friends" and declaring, "I firmly believe that Bolshevism will benefit humanity, and I am willing to do my best to spread the principles of Bolshevism to the world."[20]

Administration

General Chen Jiongming, the supreme ruler of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian

The Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian consisted of 26 counties, in South Fujian and West Fujian [zh][20]. It was administered by a combined civil-military government, which oversaw the region's economic and military consolidation. As commander-in-chief of the Guangdong Army, the region's de facto supreme ruler was Chen Jiongming, who appointed the administration's departmental heads.[2]

Office Officeholder
Supreme ruler Chen Jiongming
Chief of staff Deng Keng [zh]
Head of civil affairs Xu Fu [zh]
Head of finance Zhong Xiunan (鍾秀南)
Head of education Liang Bingxian (梁冰弦)
Head of public works Zhou Xingnan (周醒南)
Police commissioner Qiu Zhe [zh]
Head of public health

The Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian can stably control 26 counties, including:[20]

Additionally, the Guangdong Army also contested for control over counties such as Putian, Xianyou, Yongchun, Nan'an, Jinjiang, Tong'an and Hui'an in Fujian with other local armed forces.[20]

Notes

  1. ^ Also translated as the "Southern Fujian Area for Constitutional Protection".[3]
  2. ^ Also translated as the "Aid-Fujian Cantonese Army".[5] Commonly shortened to "Guangdong Army",[6] or "Cantonese Army"[7]

References

  1. ^ 民国政府货币介绍
  2. ^ a b Chen 1999, p. 86.
  3. ^ Goikhman 2013, pp. 81–82.
  4. ^ 闽南日报 (2019-02-27). "漳州现99年前民国粤军地契 见证一段历史" (in Simplified Chinese). 台海网. Archived from the original on 2023-04-22. Retrieved 2023-06-26. 1918年6月，陈炯明与李厚基达成划界停战协议，在粤军所占区域建立"福建护法区"（后称"闽南护法区"），首府设于漳州。(In June 1918, Chen Jiongming and Li Houji reached a boundary ceasefire agreement, establishing the "Constitution Protection Region of Fujian" (later known as the "Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian") in the area occupied by the Guangdong Army, with its capital in Zhangzhou.)
  5. ^ Guo 2020, p. 7.
  6. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 75–77; Goikhman 2013, p. 85.
  7. ^ Guo 2020, p. 7n24.
  8. ^ 国家历史杂志 (2009-04-29). "无政府主义 陈炯明与"安那琪"世界" (in Simplified Chinese). 凤凰网. Archived from the original on 2020-02-13. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  9. ^ Chen 1999, p. 74.
  10. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 74–75.
  11. ^ Chen 1999, p. 75.
  12. ^ Chen 1999, p. 77.
  13. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 75–76.
  14. ^ a b Chen 1999, p. 76.
  15. ^ Chen 1999, p. 76; Guo 2020, p. 7.
  16. ^ Chen 1999, p. 78.
  17. ^ Chen 1999, p. 79.
  18. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 79–80.
  19. ^ Chen 1999, p. 80.
  20. ^ a b c d e f 张慧卿 (2005). 闽南护法区研究 (Master thesis) (in Simplified Chinese). 福建师范大学. Archived from the original on 2022-02-12. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  21. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 80–81.
  22. ^ Chen 1999, p. 81.
  23. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 81–82.
  24. ^ a b Chen 1999, p. 82.
  25. ^ Dirlik 1991, p. 15.
  26. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 82–83.
  27. ^ Chen 1999, p. 83.
  28. ^ Chen 1999, p. 84.
  29. ^ Chen 1999, p. 85.
  30. ^ Chen 1999, pp. 85–86.
  31. ^ 陈福霖（F. Gilbert Chan） (1989-11-01). 南粤割据：从龙济光到陈济棠 (in Simplified Chinese). 广州: 广东人民出版社. p. 382. ISBN 9787218002828. Archived from the original on 2023-07-26. Retrieved 2023-06-26. 城墙拆除改成道路，成立妓女户特区，道路拓宽、新屋不少
  32. ^ 张慧卿 (2008). "陈炯明与闽南护法区的政治革新". 宁德师专学报(哲学社会科学版) (87): 96–100.
  33. ^ 汤锐祥 (1992). 护法舰队史 (in Simplified Chinese). 广州: 中山大学出版社. p. 278. ISBN 9787306005113. Archived from the original on 2023-08-18. Retrieved 2023-08-18. 另一方面，11月30日，军政府政务会议发布任命令，特任护法舰队总司令林怿为福建督军，陈炯明为福建省长；12月12日，又发布补充令，任命福建省长陈炯明兼会办福建军务，方声涛会办福建军务。
  34. ^ 闽台文化大辞典 (2019-04-25). "闽南护法区的建立" (in Simplified Chinese). 福建炎黄纵横. Archived from the original on 2020-02-13. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  35. ^ Chen Jiongming Anarchism and the Federalist State

Bibliography

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