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==Uses==
==Uses==
===Industrial organic chemistry===
===Industrial organic chemistry===
Zinc chloride is used as a catalyst or reagent in diverse reactions conducted on an industrial scale. The partial hydrolysis of [[benzal chloride]] in the presence of zinc chloride is the main route to [[benzoyl chloride]]. It serves as a catalyst for the production of methylene-bis(dithiocarbamate).<ref name="a">{{Ullmann | author1=Dieter M. M. Rohe | author2=Hans Uwe Wolf | title=Zinc Compounds | year=2007 | pages=1–6 | doi=10.1002/14356007.a28_537|}}</ref>
Zinc chloride is used as a catalyst or reagent in diverse reactions conducted on an industrial scale. Benzaldehyde, 20,000 tons of which is produced in Western countries, can be efficiently produced from inexpensive [[toluene]] by exploiting the catalytic properties of zinc dichloride. This process begins with the chlorination of toluene to give [[benzal chloride]]. A mixture of benzal chloride and anhydrous zinc chloride are treated continuously with water according to the following stoichiometry:<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/14356007.a03_463.pub2}}</ref>
:{{chem2|C6H5CHCl2 + H2O -> C6H5CHO + 2 HCl}}

Similarly zinc chloride is employed in the main route to [[benzoyl chloride]]. It serves as a catalyst for the production of methylene-bis(dithiocarbamate).<ref name="a">{{Ullmann | author1=Dieter M. M. Rohe | author2=Hans Uwe Wolf | title=Zinc Compounds | year=2007 | pages=1–6 | doi=10.1002/14356007.a28_537|}}</ref>
The combination of hydrochloric acid and {{chem2|ZnCl2}}, known as the "[[Lucas reagent]]", is effective for the preparation of alkyl chlorides from alcohols. Similar reactions are the basis of industrial routes from methanol and ethanol respectively to [[methyl chloride]] and [[ethyl chloride]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kjonaas, R. A. |author2=Riedford, B. A. | title = A Study of the Lucas Test | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | year = 1991 | volume = 68 | issue = 8 | pages = 704 | doi = 10.1021/ed068p704 }}</ref>


====Organic syntheses====
====Organic syntheses====

Revision as of 02:52, 16 June 2024

Zinc chloride

Anhydrous
Zinc chloride hydrate
Monohydrate
Names
IUPAC name
Zinc chloride
Other names
  • Butter of zinc
  • Neutral zinc chloride (1:2)
  • Zinc bichloride (archaic)
  • Zinc(II) chloride
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.720 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 231-592-0
RTECS number
  • ZH1400000
UNII
UN number 2331
  • InChI=1S/2ClH.Zn/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2 checkY
    Key: JIAARYAFYJHUJI-UHFFFAOYSA-L checkY
  • InChI=1/2ClH.Zn/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2
    Key: JIAARYAFYJHUJI-NUQVWONBAB
  • Cl[Zn]Cl
Properties
ZnCl2
Molar mass 136.315 g/mol
Appearance White hygroscopic and very deliquescent crystalline solid
Odor odorless
Density 2.907 g/cm3
Melting point 290 °C (554 °F; 563 K)[1]
Boiling point 732 °C (1,350 °F; 1,005 K)[1]
432.0 g/100 g (25 °C)
615 g/100 g (100 °C)
Solubility soluble in ethanol, glycerol and acetone
Solubility in ethanol 430.0 g/100 ml
−65.0·10−6 cm3/mol
Structure
Tetrahedral, linear in the gas phase
Pharmacology
B05XA12 (WHO)
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
Oral toxicity, irritant[2]
GHS labelling:
GHS05: CorrosiveGHS07: Exclamation markGHS09: Environmental hazard
Danger
H302, H314, H410
P273, P280, P301+P330+P331, P305+P351+P338, P308+P310
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 3: Short exposure could cause serious temporary or residual injury. E.g. chlorine gasFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
3
0
0
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
  • 350 mg/kg (rat, oral)
  • 350 mg/kg (mouse, oral)
  • 200 mg/kg (guinea pig, oral)
  • 1100 mg/kg (rat, oral)
  • 1250 mg/kg (mouse, oral)
[4]
1260 mg/m3 (rat, 30 min)
1180 mg-min/m3[4]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 1 mg/m3 (fume)[3]
REL (Recommended)
TWA 1 mg/m3 ST 2 mg/m3 (fume)[3]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
50 mg/m3 (fume)[3]
Safety data sheet (SDS) External SDS
Related compounds
Other anions
Other cations
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Zinc chloride is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula ZnCl2·nH2O, with n ranging from 0 to 4.5, forming hydrates. Zinc chloride, anhydrous and its hydrates, are colorless or white crystalline solids, and are highly soluble in water. Five hydrates of zinc chloride are known, as well as four forms of anhydrous zinc chloride.[5] All forms of zinc chloride are deliquescent. Zinc chloride finds wide application in textile processing, metallurgical fluxes, and chemical synthesis.[5] In a major monograph, zinc chlorides have been described as "one of the important compounds of zinc."[6]

Structure and properties

Relative to other metal dihalides, zinc dichloride is unusual in forming several crystalline forms (polymorphs). Four are known: α, β, γ, and δ. Each case features tetrahedral Zn2+ centers.[7]

Form Crystal system Pearson symbol Space group No. a (nm)  b (nm) c (nm) Z Density (g/cm3)
α tetragonal tI12 I42d 122 0.5398 0.5398 0.64223 4 3.00
β tetragonal tP6 P42/nmc 137 0.3696 0.3696 1.071 2 3.09
γ monoclinic mP36 P21/c 14 0.654 1.131 1.23328 12 2.98
δ orthorhombic oP12 Pna21 33 0.6125 0.6443 0.7693 4 2.98

Here a, b, and c are lattice constants, Z is the number of structure units per unit cell, and ρ is the density calculated from the structure parameters.[8][9][10]

The orthorhombic form (δ) rapidly changes to one of the other forms on exposure to the atmosphere. A possible explanation is that the OH ions originating from the absorbed water facilitate the rearrangement.[7] Rapid cooling of molten ZnCl2 gives a glass.[11]

Molten ZnCl2 has a high viscosity at its melting point and a comparatively low electrical conductivity, which increases markedly with temperature.[12][13] As indicated by a Raman scattering study, the viscosity is explained by the presence of polymers,[14]. Neutron scattering study indicated the presence of tetrahedral ZnCl4 centers, which requires aggregation of ZnCl2 monomers as well.[15]

Hydrates

Various hydrates of zinc chloride are known: ZnCl2(H2O)n with n = 1, 1.33, 2.5, 3, and 4.5.[16] The 1.33-hydrate, previously thought to be the hemitrihydrate, consists of trans-Zn(H2O)4Cl2 centers with the chlorine atoms connected to repeating ZnCl4 chains. The hemipentahydrate, structurally formulated [Zn(H2O)5][ZnCl4], consists of Zn(H2O)5Cl octahedrons where the chlorine atom is part of a [ZnCl4]2- tetrahedera. The trihydrate consists of distinct hexaaquozinc(II) cations and tetrachlorozincate anions; formulated [Zn(H2O)6][ZnCl4]. Finally, the heminonahydrate, structurally formulated [Zn(H2O)6][ZnCl4]·3H2O also consists of distinct hexaaquozinc(II) cations and tetrachlorozincate anions like the trihydrate but has three extra water molecules.[17][18]

Preparation and purification

Anhydrous ZnCl2 can be prepared from zinc and hydrogen chloride at 700 °C:[5]

Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Aqueous solutions may be readily prepared similarly by treating Zn metal, zinc carbonate, zinc oxide, and zinc sulfide with hydrochloric acid:[19]

ZnS + 2 HCl + 4 H2O → ZnCl2(H2O)4 + H2S

Hydrates can be produced by evaporation of an aqueous solution of zinc chloride. The temperature of the evaporation determines the hydrates For example, evaporation at room temperature produces the 1.33-hydrate.[17][20] Lower evaporation temperatures produce higher hydrates.[18]

Commercial samples of zinc chloride typically contain water and products from hydrolysis as impurities. Laboratory samples may be purified by recrystallization from hot dioxane. Anhydrous samples can be purified by sublimation in a stream of hydrogen chloride gas, followed by heating the sublimate to 400 °C in a stream of dry nitrogen gas.[21] A simple method relies on treating the zinc chloride with thionyl chloride.[22]

Reactions

The Zn2+2 ion

Molten anhydrous ZnCl2 at 500–700 °C dissolves zinc metal, and, on rapid cooling of the melt, a yellow diamagnetic glass is formed, which Raman studies indicate contains the Zn2+2 ion.[16]

Chloride complexes

A number of salts containing the tetrachlorozincate anion, [ZnCl4]2−, are known.[12] "Caulton's reagent", V2Cl3(thf)6] [Zn2Cl6], which is used in organic chemistry, is an example of a salt containing [Zn2Cl6]2−.[23][24] The compound Cs3ZnCl5 contains tetrahedral [ZnCl4]2− and Cl anions,[7] so, the compound is not caesium pentachlorozincate, but caesium tetrachlorozincate chloride. No compounds containing the [ZnCl6]4− ion (hexachlorozincate ion) have been characterized.[7]

The compound ZnCl2·0.5HCl·H2O may be prepared by careful precipitation from a solution of ZnCl2 acidified with HCl. It contains a polymeric anion (Zn2Cl5)n with balancing monohydrated hydronium ions, H5O+2 ions.[7][25]

The coordination complex ZnCl2(NH2OH)2 (zinc dichloride di(hydroxylamine)), known as Crismer's salt, releases hydroxylamine upon heating.[26]

Aqueous solutions of zinc chloride

Zinc chloride dissolves readily in water to give ZnClx(H2O)4−x species and some free chloride.[27][28][29] Aqueous solutions of ZnCl2 are acidic: a 6 M aqueous solution has a pH of 1.[16] The acidity of aqueous ZnCl2 solutions relative to solutions of other Zn2+ salts (say the sulfate) is due to the formation of the tetrahedral chloro aqua complexes where the reduction in coordination number from 6 to 4 further reduces the strength of the O–H bonds in the solvated water molecules.[30]

In alkali solution, zinc chloride converts to various zinc hydroxychlorides. These include [Zn(OH)3Cl]2−, [Zn(OH)2Cl2]2−, [Zn(OH)Cl3]2−, and the insoluble Zn5(OH)8Cl2·H2O. The latter is the mineral simonkolleite.[31] When zinc chloride hydrates are heated, HCl gas evolves and hydroxychlorides result.[32]

When solutions of zinc chloride are treated with ammonia, various ammine complexes are produced. These include Zn(NH3)4Cl2·H2O and on concentration ZnCl2(NH3)2.[33] The former contains the [Zn(NH3)6]2+ ion,[7] and the latter is molecular with a distorted tetrahedral geometry.[34] The species in aqueous solution have been investigated and show that [Zn(NH3)4]2+ is the main species present with [Zn(NH3)3Cl]+ also present at lower NH3:Zn ratio.[35]

Zinc oxychloride cement

Aqueous zinc chloride reacts with zinc oxide to form an amorphous cement that was first investigated in 1855 by Stanislas Sorel. Sorel later went on to investigate the related magnesium oxychloride cement, which bears his name.[36]

Decomposition

Anhydrous zinc chloride is able to melt and boil without any decomposition until 900 °C in an inert atmosphere. However, in the presence of oxygen, zinc chloride oxidizes to zinc oxide above 400 °C.[37]

When hydrated zinc chloride is heated, Zn(OH)Cl is produced instead of anhydrous zinc chloride:[38]

ZnCl2·2H2O → Zn(OH)Cl + HCl + H2O

Cellulose dissolution in aqueous solutions of ZnCl2

Cellulose dissolves in aqueous solutions of ZnCl2. This unusual phenomenon is attributed to the formation of zinc-cellulose complexes, which have have been detected.[39] Cellulose also dissolves in molten ZnCl2 hydrate.[40] Overall, this behavior is consistent with Zn2+ as a hard Lewis acid]].

Conversion to other zinc compounds

Although zinc chlorides with diverse formulas and structuress exist, these salts often behave very similarly in aqueous solution. For example, solutions prepared from any of the hydrates of ZnCl2, as well as other halides (bromide, iodide), and the sulfate can often be used interchangeably for the preparation of other zinc compounds. These salts give precipitates o zinc carbonate when treated with aqueous carbonate sources:[5]

ZnCl2 + Na2CO3 → ZnCO3 + 2 NaCl

Uses

Industrial organic chemistry

Zinc chloride is used as a catalyst or reagent in diverse reactions conducted on an industrial scale. Benzaldehyde, 20,000 tons of which is produced in Western countries, can be efficiently produced from inexpensive toluene by exploiting the catalytic properties of zinc dichloride. This process begins with the chlorination of toluene to give benzal chloride. A mixture of benzal chloride and anhydrous zinc chloride are treated continuously with water according to the following stoichiometry:[41]

C6H5CHCl2 + H2O → C6H5CHO + 2 HCl

Similarly zinc chloride is employed in the main route to benzoyl chloride. It serves as a catalyst for the production of methylene-bis(dithiocarbamate).[5]

Organic syntheses

Zinc chloride is an occasional laboratory reagent, e.g., as a Lewis acid.[42]

Molten zinc chloride catalyses the conversion of methanol to hexamethylbenzene:[43]

15 CH3OH → C6(CH3)6 + 3 CH4 + 15 H2O

Other examples include catalyzing (A) the Fischer indole synthesis,[44] and also (B) Friedel-Crafts acylation reactions involving activated aromatic rings[45][46]

Related to the latter is the classical preparation of the dye fluorescein from phthalic anhydride and resorcinol, which involves a Friedel-Crafts acylation.[47] This transformation has in fact been accomplished using even the hydrated ZnCl2 sample shown in the picture above.

Zinc chloride also activates benzylic and allylic halides towards substitution by weak nucleophiles such as alkenes:[48]

In similar fashion, ZnCl2 promotes selective Na[BH3(CN)] reduction of tertiary, allylic or benzylic halides to the corresponding hydrocarbons.[21]

Organozinc precursor

Being inexpensive and anhydrous, ZnCl2 is a widely used for the synthesis of many organozinc reagents, such as those used in the palladium catalyzed Negishi coupling with aryl halides or vinyl halides. The prominence of this reaction was highlighted by the award of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Ei-ichi Negishi.[49]

Zinc enolates, prepared from alkali metal enolates and ZnCl2, provide control of stereochemistry in aldol condensation reactions due to chelation on to the zinc. In the example shown below, the threo product was favored over the erythro by a factor of 5:1 when ZnCl2 in DME/ether was used.[50] The chelate is more stable when the bulky phenyl group is pseudo-equatorial rather than pseudo-axial, i.e., threo rather than erythro.[citation needed]

As a metallurgical flux

The use of zinc chloride as a flux, sometimes in a mixture with ammonium chloride (see also Zinc ammonium chloride), involves the production of HCl and its subsequent reaction with surface oxides.

Zinc chloride reacts with metal oxides (MO) to give derivatives of the idealized formula MZnOCl2.[51][additional citation(s) needed] This reaction is relevant to the utility of ZnCl2 solution as a flux for soldering — it dissolves passivating oxides, exposing the clean metal surface.[51] Fluxes with ZnCl2 as an active ingredient are sometimes called "tinner's fluid".[citation needed]

Zinc chloride forms two salts with ammonium chloride: [NH4]2[ZnCl4] and [NH4]3[ZnCl4]Cl, which decompose on heating liberating HCl, just as zinc chloride hydrate does. The action of zinc chloride/ammonium chloride fluxes, for example, in the hot-dip galvanizing process produces H2 gas and ammonia fumes.[52]

In textile and paper processing

Concentrated aqueous solutions of zinc chloride (more than 64% weight/weight zinc chloride in water) are capable of dissolving starch, silk, and cellulose.[citation needed]

Relevant to its affinity for these materials, ZnCl2 is used as a fireproofing agent and in fabric "refresheners" such as Febreze. Vulcanized fibre is made by soaking paper in concentrated zinc chloride.[citation needed]

Other uses

The zinc chloride smoke mixture ("HC") used in smoke grenades contains zinc oxide, hexachloroethane and granular aluminium powder, which, when ignited, react to form zinc chloride, carbon and aluminium oxide smoke, an effective smoke screen.[53]

Ninhydrin reacts with amino acids and amines to form a colored compound "Ruhemann's purple" (RP). Spraying with a zinc chloride solution forms a 1:1 complex RP:ZnCl(H2O)2, which is more readily detected as it fluoresces more intensely than RP.[54]


History

Zinc chloride has long been known but the industrial literature current applications evolved in the 20th century.

Dilute aqueous zinc chloride was used as a disinfectant under the name "Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid".[55] From 1839 Sir William Burnett promoted its use as a disinfectant as well as a wood preservative.[56] The Royal Navy conducted trials into its use as a disinfectant in the late 1840s, including during the cholera epidemic of 1849; and at the same time experiments were conducted into its preservative properties as applicable to the shipbuilding and railway industries. Burnett had some commercial success with his eponymous fluid. Following his death however, its use was largely superseded by that of carbolic acid and other proprietary products.[citation needed]

Natural occurrence

Anhydrous zinc chloride or its hydrates is not known in nature. However, the related zinc chloride hydroxide monohydrate is known as simonkolleite in nature.[57]

Safety and health

Zinc and chloride are essential for life. Zn2+ is a component of several enzymes, e.g., carboxypeptidase and carbonic anhydrase. Thus, aqueous solutions of zinc chlorides are rarely problematic as an acute poison.[5] Anhydrous zinc chloride is however an aggressive Lewis acid as it can burn skin and other tissues. Ingestion of zinc chloride, often from soldering flux, requires endoscopic monitoring.[58]

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Further reading

  • N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997.
  • Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
  • The Merck Index, 7th edition, Merck & Co, Rahway, New Jersey, USA, 1960.
  • D. Nicholls, Complexes and First-Row Transition Elements, Macmillan Press, London, 1973.
  • J. March, Advanced Organic Chemistry, 4th ed., p. 723, Wiley, New York, 1992.
  • G. J. McGarvey, in Handbook of Reagents for Organic Synthesis, Volume 1: Reagents, Auxiliaries and Catalysts for C-C Bond Formation, (R. M. Coates, S. E. Denmark, eds.), pp. 220–3, Wiley, New York, 1999.