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*''Gnorimoschema tuberosella'' <small>Busck, 1931</small>
*''Gnorimoschema tuberosella'' <small>Busck, 1931</small>
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The '''South American potato tuber moth''', '''Andean potato tuber moth''' or '''tomato stemborer''' ('''''Symmetrischema tangolias''''') is a [[moth]] of the family [[Gelechiidae]]. It is native to [[South America]], but has become a pest worldwide. Records include [[North America]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>[http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/lepidoptera/ditrysia/gelechioidea/gelechiidae/gelechiinae/symmetrischema/ funet.fi]</ref>
The '''South American potato tuber moth''', '''Andean potato tuber moth''' or '''tomato stemborer''' ('''''Symmetrischema tangolias''''') is a [[moth]] of the family [[Gelechiidae]]. It is native to [[South America]], but has become a pest worldwide. Records include [[North America]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=''Symmetrischema'' Povolný, 1967 |url=http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/lepidoptera/ditrysia/gelechioidea/gelechiidae/gelechiinae/symmetrischema/ |publisher=funet.fi}}</ref>


== Species Description==
== Species Description==
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=== New Zealand range ===
=== New Zealand range ===
It is believed that tomato stemborer was introduced in New Zealand from South America through anthropogenic activities.<ref name="Martin, 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=N. A. |title=Arthropods and molluscs associated with poroporo ( ''Solanum aviculare'' and ''S. laciniatum'' ) '':'' an annotated species list |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand |date=1999 |volume=29 |pages=65–76 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1999.9517583}}</ref><ref name="Edney-Browne, 2018">{{cite book |last1=Edney-Browne |first1=Emma |title=Establishment patterns of non-native insects in New Zealand |last2=Brockerhoff |first2=Eckehard G. |last3=Ward |first3=Darren |date=2018 |publisher=Biol Invasions |volume=20 |pages=1657–1669 |doi=10.1007/s10530-017-1652-5}}</ref> The larvae were first discovered burrowing into the stem of a native plant, ''[[Solanum aviculare]]'' on October 4, 1979, in [[Waitara, New Zealand|Waitara]], [[Taranaki]].<ref name="Martin, 1999" /> On February 14, 1980, small caterpillars were identified as tomato stemborers, and they were found to be connected to dark lesions on stems and near leaf nodes.<ref name="Martin, 1999" /> Later, it was also found that the tomato stemborer also feeds on ''S. aviculare'' on Takaka Hill, Riwaka, Nelson, Pukekohe, and Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland.<ref name="Martin, 1999" /><ref name="Cabi & Eppo, 2020" />
It is believed that tomato stemborer was introduced in New Zealand from South America through anthropogenic activities.<ref name="Martin, 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=N. A. |title=Arthropods and molluscs associated with poroporo (''Solanum aviculare'' and ''S. laciniatum'') : an annotated species list |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand |date=1999 |volume=29 |pages=65–76 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1999.9517583}}</ref><ref name="Edney-Browne, 2018">{{cite book |last1=Edney-Browne |first1=Emma |title=Establishment patterns of non-native insects in New Zealand |last2=Brockerhoff |first2=Eckehard G. |last3=Ward |first3=Darren |date=2018 |publisher=Biol Invasions |volume=20 |pages=1657–1669 |doi=10.1007/s10530-017-1652-5}}</ref> The larvae were first discovered burrowing into the stem of a native plant, ''[[Solanum aviculare]]'' on October 4, 1979, in [[Waitara, New Zealand|Waitara]], [[Taranaki]].<ref name="Martin, 1999" /> On February 14, 1980, small caterpillars were identified as tomato stemborers, and they were found to be connected to dark lesions on stems and near leaf nodes.<ref name="Martin, 1999" /> Later, it was also found that the tomato stemborer also feeds on ''S. aviculare'' on Takaka Hill, Riwaka, Nelson, Pukekohe, and Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland.<ref name="Martin, 1999" /><ref name="Cabi & Eppo, 2020" />
<ref name="Ward, 2017">{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Darren |url=https://datastore.landcareresearch.co.nz/dataset/exoticinsectsfirstrecords |title=First records of exotic insects established in New Zealand |date=2017 |publisher=Landcare Research NZ Ltd |doi=10.7931/J20K26HK}}</ref>
<ref name="Ward, 2017">{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Darren |url=https://datastore.landcareresearch.co.nz/dataset/exoticinsectsfirstrecords |title=First records of exotic insects established in New Zealand |date=2017 |publisher=Landcare Research NZ Ltd |doi=10.7931/J20K26HK}}</ref>
==Habitat==
==Habitat==
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===Predators, Parasites, and Diseases===
===Predators, Parasites, and Diseases===
Possible predators of tomato stemborer are from a variety of insect orders, which includes [[Heteroptera]],<ref name="Alomar, 2017">{{cite book |last1=Alomar |first1=Oscar |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200832455_Facultative_Predation_as_a_Biological_Control_-_httptinyurlcomfacultative-predators-2b |title=Facultative predation as a biological control |date=2017 |publisher=Encyclopedia of Pest Management |volume=II |pages=172–174}}</ref><ref name="Hamdi et al., 2013">{{cite book |last1=Hamdi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321148783_Macrolophus_pygmaeus_Wagner_Heteroptera_Miridae_a_promising_biological_control_agent_for_tomato_protected_crops_in_Tunisia |title=Macrolophus pygmaeus Wagner (Heteroptera: Miridae) a promising biological control agent for protected tomato crop in Tunisia. International Symposium "Crop Protection Management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture" |last2=Chermiti |first2=B. |last3=Gauthier |first3=N. |last4=Streito |first4=J-C |last5=Bonato |first5=O. |date=2013 |volume=19 |location=Crop protection management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture ’ISOFAR / MOAN / CTAB Symposium}}</ref> [[Hymenoptera]],<ref name="Bownes, 2002">{{cite book |last1=Bownes |first1=Angela |title=The structure of ant communities and their impact on soil-pupating pests in citrus orchards in the Grahamstown area of the Eastern Cape |date=2002 |publisher=Rhodes University |url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/145047020}}</ref> [[Earwig|Dermaptera]],<ref name="Lenfant et al., 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Lenfant |first1=C. |last2=Lyoussoufi |first2=A. |last3=Chen |first3=X. |last4=d'Arcier |first4=F. Faivre |last5=Sauphanor |first5=B. |title=Potentialités prédatrices de Forficula auricularia sur le psylle du poirier Cacopsylla pyri |journal=Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata |date=1994 |volume=73 |pages=51–60 |doi=10.1111/j.1570-7458.1994.tb01838.x}}</ref> [[Beetle|Coleoptera]],<ref name="Boothe & Ponsonby, 2006">{{cite book |last1=Boothe |first1=R. A. |last2=Ponsonby |first2=D. J. |title=Searching behaviour in Chilocorus nigritus (F.)(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). |date=2006 |volume=71 |pages=253–261 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17390801/#:~:text=Analyses%20of%20behaviours%20suggest%20that,prey%20at%20plant%20surface%20level.}}</ref> [[Neuroptera]],<ref name="Auad et al., 2003">{{cite book |last1=Auad |first1=A. M. |title=Biological aspects of Chrysoperla externa (Hagen, 1861)(Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) fed on eggs and larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith, 1797)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). |last2=Carvalho |first2=C. F. |last3=Souza |first3=B. |last4=Barbosa |first4=L. R. |date=2003 |publisher=Ciência e Agrotecnologia |volume=33 |page=31-38}}</ref> and [[Thrips|Thysanoptera]].<ref name="Desneux et al., 2010">{{cite book |last1=Desneux |first1=Nicolas |last2=Wajnberg |first2=Eric |last3=Wyckhuys |first3=Kris AG |last4=Burgio |first4=Giovanni |last5=Arpaia |first5=Salvatore |last6=Narváez-Vasquez |first6=Consuelo A. |last7=González-Cabrera |first7=Joel |last8=Catalán Ruescas |first8=Diana |last9=Tabone |first9=Elisabeth |last10=Frandon |first10=Jacques |title=Biological invasion of European tomato crops by Tuta absoluta: ecology, geographic expansion and prospects for biological control |date=2010 |pages=197–215}}</ref> Some predator species are from arachnid families, which include [[Phytoseiidae]]<ref name="Mound & Reynaud, 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Mound |first1=Laurence A. |last2=Reynaud |first2=Philippe |title=Franklinothrips; a pantropical Thysanoptera genus of ant-mimicking obligate predators (Aeolothripidae) |journal=Zootaxa |date=2005 |volume=864 |pages=1–16-1–16}}</ref> and [[Wolf spider|Lycosidae.]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Hui-Yuan |last2=Ma |first2=Meng |last3=Dong |first3=Tie |last4=Liu |first4=Xiao-Yong |last5=Zhang |first5=Kun |last6=Wang |first6=Fa-Lin |title=Biological control efficiency of Amblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans) on Panonychus ulmi (Koch) |journal=Ying Yong Sheng tai xue bao= The Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2010 |pages=191–196}}</ref> These orders have proven useful as biocontrol agents against ''[[Tuta absoluta]]'', which is in the same family as tomato stemborer.<ref name="Ghoneim, 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Ghoneim |first1=K. |title=Predatory insects and arachnids as potential biological control agents against the invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in perspective and prospective |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |date=2014 |pages=52–71 |url=https://www.entomoljournal.com/vol2Issue2/pdf/6.1.pdf}}</ref> However, further study is needed to fully understand how these predators interact with other biocontrol agents. It would also be beneficial to conduct additional research on selecting insecticide and the most effective natural predators.<ref name="Ghoneim, 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Ghoneim |first1=K. |title=Predatory insects and arachnids as potential biological control agents against the invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in perspective and prospective |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |date=2014 |pages=52–71 |url=https://www.entomoljournal.com/vol2Issue2/pdf/6.1.pdf}}</ref>
Possible predators of tomato stemborer are from a variety of insect orders, which includes [[Heteroptera]],<ref name="Alomar, 2017">{{cite book |last1=Alomar |first1=Oscar |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200832455_Facultative_Predation_as_a_Biological_Control_-_httptinyurlcomfacultative-predators-2b |title=Facultative predation as a biological control |date=2017 |publisher=Encyclopedia of Pest Management |volume=II |pages=172–174}}</ref><ref name="Hamdi et al., 2013">{{cite book |last1=Hamdi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321148783_Macrolophus_pygmaeus_Wagner_Heteroptera_Miridae_a_promising_biological_control_agent_for_tomato_protected_crops_in_Tunisia |title=Macrolophus pygmaeus Wagner (Heteroptera: Miridae) a promising biological control agent for protected tomato crop in Tunisia. International Symposium "Crop Protection Management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture" |last2=Chermiti |first2=B. |last3=Gauthier |first3=N. |last4=Streito |first4=J-C |last5=Bonato |first5=O. |date=2013 |volume=19 |location=Crop protection management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture ’ISOFAR / MOAN / CTAB Symposium}}</ref> [[Hymenoptera]],<ref name="Bownes, 2002">{{cite book |last1=Bownes |first1=Angela |title=The structure of ant communities and their impact on soil-pupating pests in citrus orchards in the Grahamstown area of the Eastern Cape |date=2002 |publisher=Rhodes University |url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/145047020}}</ref> [[Earwig|Dermaptera]],<ref name="Lenfant et al., 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Lenfant |first1=C. |last2=Lyoussoufi |first2=A. |last3=Chen |first3=X. |last4=d'Arcier |first4=F. Faivre |last5=Sauphanor |first5=B. |title=Potentialités prédatrices de Forficula auricularia sur le psylle du poirier ''Cacopsylla pyri'' |journal=Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata |date=1994 |volume=73 |pages=51–60 |doi=10.1111/j.1570-7458.1994.tb01838.x}}</ref> [[Beetle|Coleoptera]],<ref name="Boothe & Ponsonby, 2006">{{cite book |last1=Boothe |first1=R. A. |last2=Ponsonby |first2=D. J. |title=Searching behaviour in Chilocorus nigritus (F.)(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). |date=2006 |volume=71 |pages=253–261 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17390801/#:~:text=Analyses%20of%20behaviours%20suggest%20that,prey%20at%20plant%20surface%20level.}}</ref> [[Neuroptera]],<ref name="Auad et al., 2003">{{cite book |last1=Auad |first1=A. M. |title=Biological aspects of Chrysoperla externa (Hagen, 1861)(Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) fed on eggs and larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith, 1797)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). |last2=Carvalho |first2=C. F. |last3=Souza |first3=B. |last4=Barbosa |first4=L. R. |date=2003 |publisher=Ciência e Agrotecnologia |volume=33 |page=31-38}}</ref> and [[Thrips|Thysanoptera]].<ref name="Desneux et al., 2010">{{cite book |last1=Desneux |first1=Nicolas |last2=Wajnberg |first2=Eric |last3=Wyckhuys |first3=Kris AG |last4=Burgio |first4=Giovanni |last5=Arpaia |first5=Salvatore |last6=Narváez-Vasquez |first6=Consuelo A. |last7=González-Cabrera |first7=Joel |last8=Catalán Ruescas |first8=Diana |last9=Tabone |first9=Elisabeth |last10=Frandon |first10=Jacques |title=Biological invasion of European tomato crops by Tuta absoluta: ecology, geographic expansion and prospects for biological control |date=2010 |pages=197–215}}</ref> Some predator species are from arachnid families, which include [[Phytoseiidae]]<ref name="Mound & Reynaud, 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Mound |first1=Laurence A. |last2=Reynaud |first2=Philippe |title=''Franklinothrips''; a pantropical Thysanoptera genus of ant-mimicking obligate predators (Aeolothripidae) |journal=Zootaxa |date=2005 |volume=864 |pages=1–16-1–16}}</ref> and [[Wolf spider|Lycosidae.]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Hui-Yuan |last2=Ma |first2=Meng |last3=Dong |first3=Tie |last4=Liu |first4=Xiao-Yong |last5=Zhang |first5=Kun |last6=Wang |first6=Fa-Lin |title=Biological control efficiency of ''Amblyseius cucumeris'' (Oudemans) on ''Panonychus ulmi'' (Koch) |journal=Ying Yong Sheng tai xue bao= The Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2010 |pages=191–196}}</ref> These orders have proven useful as biocontrol agents against ''[[Tuta absoluta]]'', which is in the same family as tomato stemborer.<ref name="Ghoneim, 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Ghoneim |first1=K. |title=Predatory insects and arachnids as potential biological control agents against the invasive tomato leafminer, ''Tuta absoluta'' Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in perspective and prospective |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |date=2014 |pages=52–71 |url=https://www.entomoljournal.com/vol2Issue2/pdf/6.1.pdf}}</ref> However, further study is needed to fully understand how these predators interact with other biocontrol agents. It would also be beneficial to conduct additional research on selecting insecticide and the most effective natural predators.<ref name="Ghoneim, 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Ghoneim |first1=K. |title=Predatory insects and arachnids as potential biological control agents against the invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in perspective and prospective |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |date=2014 |pages=52–71 |url=https://www.entomoljournal.com/vol2Issue2/pdf/6.1.pdf}}</ref>


==Other information==
==Other information==
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Tomato stemborer life cycle is highly dependent on temperature. Temperatures around 10-28&nbsp;°C are optimal for larval growth.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /> Furthermore, eggs and pupae has a high survival rate >80% when temperature conditions are met; immature development takes around 190 days.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /> However, higher temperatures eventually lead to slower growth in larvae, and the threshold for a lower temperature is roughly ~8&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" /> This also applies to the adult moth, and causes their reproduction and oviposition rates to decline when temperature conditions are not suitable.<ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />
Tomato stemborer life cycle is highly dependent on temperature. Temperatures around 10-28&nbsp;°C are optimal for larval growth.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /> Furthermore, eggs and pupae has a high survival rate >80% when temperature conditions are met; immature development takes around 190 days.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /> However, higher temperatures eventually lead to slower growth in larvae, and the threshold for a lower temperature is roughly ~8&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Kroschel & Schaub, 2013" /><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" /> This also applies to the adult moth, and causes their reproduction and oviposition rates to decline when temperature conditions are not suitable.<ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />


When tomato stemborer coexists with [[Phthorimaea operculella|''Phthorimaea opercuella'']], crop damage may increase compared to when the species occurs alone, potentially leading to financial losses.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref> Although field losses in the [[Andes]] regions in South America can amount to up to 30%, the most economically significant damage is when infected tomatoes or tubers are moved to stores where they become re-infested.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" /> Within three to four months of storage, farmers who do not have proper protection risk losing all of their house-stored solanaceous produce.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />
When tomato stemborer coexists with [[Phthorimaea operculella|''Phthorimaea opercuella'']], crop damage may increase compared to when the species occurs alone, potentially leading to financial losses.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths ''Phthorimaea operculella'' (Zeller) and ''Symmetrischema tangolias'' (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref> Although field losses in the [[Andes]] regions in South America can amount to up to 30%, the most economically significant damage is when infected tomatoes or tubers are moved to stores where they become re-infested.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and ''Symmetrischema tangolias'' (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" /> Within three to four months of storage, farmers who do not have proper protection risk losing all of their house-stored solanaceous produce.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Kroschel |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zegarra |first2=Octavio |title=Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth |journal=Pest Management Science |date=May 2010 |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1002/ps.1898}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />


(3E,7Z)-[[Tetradecadienyl acetates|Tetradecadienyl acetate]] is the major sex pheromone for this species.<ref name="Awalekar et al., 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Awalekar |first1=Ramchandra |last2=Mohire |first2=Priyanka |last3=Patravale |first3=Ajinkya |last4=Salunkhe |first4=Shilpa |last5=Usmani |first5=Shams |title=Total Stereospecific Synthesis of (3E,7Z)-Tetradecadienyl Acetate, the Major Sex Pheromone Component of the Potato Pest Symmetrischema tangolias |journal=Chemistry of Natural Compounds |date=2021 |volume=56 |pages=1000–1004 |doi=10.1007/s10600-021-03537-1}}</ref> This could help to control the population of ''S. tangolias,'' as pheromone traps are used to draw in male adults.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010" /> Sex-pheromone-baited water or funnel traps reveal the presence of ''S. tangolias'' population and this helps tto dentify ''S.tangolias'' early on to help with early pest management response.<ref name="Griepink et al., 1995">{{cite book |last1=Griepink |first1=Frans C. |last2=van Beek |first2=Teris A. |last3=Visser |first3=J. Hans |last4=Voerman |first4=Simon |last5=de Groot |first5=Aede |title=Isolation and identification of sex pheromone of Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen)(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) |date=1995 |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |pages=2003–2013 |edition=21}}</ref><ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010" />
(3E,7Z)-[[Tetradecadienyl acetates|Tetradecadienyl acetate]] is the major sex pheromone for this species.<ref name="Awalekar et al., 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Awalekar |first1=Ramchandra |last2=Mohire |first2=Priyanka |last3=Patravale |first3=Ajinkya |last4=Salunkhe |first4=Shilpa |last5=Usmani |first5=Shams |title=Total Stereospecific Synthesis of (3E,7Z)-Tetradecadienyl Acetate, the major sex pheromone component of the potato pest ''Symmetrischema tangolias'' |journal=Chemistry of Natural Compounds |date=2021 |volume=56 |pages=1000–1004 |doi=10.1007/s10600-021-03537-1}}</ref> This could help to control the population of ''S. tangolias,'' as pheromone traps are used to draw in male adults.<ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010" /> Sex-pheromone-baited water or funnel traps reveal the presence of ''S. tangolias'' population and this helps tto dentify ''S.tangolias'' early on to help with early pest management response.<ref name="Griepink et al., 1995">{{cite book |last1=Griepink |first1=Frans C. |last2=van Beek |first2=Teris A. |last3=Visser |first3=J. Hans |last4=Voerman |first4=Simon |last5=de Groot |first5=Aede |title=Isolation and identification of sex pheromone of ''Symmetrischema tangolias'' (Gyen)(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) |date=1995 |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |pages=2003–2013 |edition=21}}</ref><ref name="Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010" />


Tomato stemborer might decrease their potential establishment on tropical and subtropical regions due to rising temperatures from climate change.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dangles |first1=Olivier |last2=Carpio |first2=Carlos |last3=Barragan |first3=A. R. |last4=Zeddam |first4=J.-L. |last5=Silvain |first5=J.-F. |title=Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes |date=2008 |volume=18 |pages=1795–1809}}</ref> However, there is a high possibility that populations might increase in temperate regions; it is possible that tomato stemborer will spread to several other regions, most likely in Western Europe, in particular, settling in Spain, France, Italy, and potentially Ireland.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dangles |first1=Olivier |title=Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes |last2=Carpio |first2=Carlos |last3=Barragan |first3=A. R. |last4=Zeddam |first4=J.-L. |last5=Silvain |first5=J.-F. |date=2008 |publisher=Ecological Applications |volume=18 |pages=1795–1809}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />
Tomato stemborer might decrease their potential establishment on tropical and subtropical regions due to rising temperatures from climate change.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dangles |first1=Olivier |last2=Carpio |first2=Carlos |last3=Barragan |first3=A. R. |last4=Zeddam |first4=J.-L. |last5=Silvain |first5=J.-F. |title=Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes |date=2008 |volume=18 |pages=1795–1809}}</ref> However, there is a high possibility that populations might increase in temperate regions; it is possible that tomato stemborer will spread to several other regions, most likely in Western Europe, in particular, settling in Spain, France, Italy, and potentially Ireland.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dangles |first1=Olivier |title=Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes |last2=Carpio |first2=Carlos |last3=Barragan |first3=A. R. |last4=Zeddam |first4=J.-L. |last5=Silvain |first5=J.-F. |date=2008 |publisher=Ecological Applications |volume=18 |pages=1795–1809}}</ref><ref name="Sporleder, 2016" />

Latest revision as of 02:23, 28 June 2024

Fundemental23/sandbox
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Gelechiidae
Genus: Symmetrischema
Species:
S. tangolias
Binomial name
Symmetrischema tangolias
(Gyen, 1913)
Synonyms
  • Trichotaphe tangolias Gyen, 1913
  • Phthorimaea plaesiosoma Turner, 1919
  • Phthorimaea aquilina Meyrick, 1917
  • Phthorimaea melanoplintha Meyrick, 1926
  • Gnorimoschema tuberosella Busck, 1931

The South American potato tuber moth, Andean potato tuber moth or tomato stemborer (Symmetrischema tangolias) is a moth of the family Gelechiidae. It is native to South America, but has become a pest worldwide. Records include North America, Australia and New Zealand.[1]

Species Description

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Tomato stemborer eggs are shaped oval and have a size of 0.7 x 0.4 mm for a freshly laid egg. The colouration changes to orange-yellow when the eggs start to develop and turn to dark gray before hatching.[2] However, there is not much known about the caterpillar stage on tomato stemborer.[2][3] Adult moths typically lay their eggs on invaded plants during nighttime.[3] The larva is typically slender and cylindrical with pinkish, dark head capsule and segments are distinct; caterpillar has small, bristle-like structures on its body.[2] The pupal stage occurs within a cocoon, with dark brown colouration encased in a protective shell.[2]

The adult moth has distinctive black triangle patches along the lateral margins of its forewings, giving it a brownish-gray (silver-gray) appearance.[2] The forewing margins are rimmed with hairs. Pale-coloured scales encircle the hindwings, which are narrower and shorter than the forewings. [2]The adult moth's body length is between 6–9 mm, and it measures ~9–12 mm when it is at rest.[2] The wingspan is roughly ~18–19 mm. Moreover, the female abdomen is broader, has a blunt end, while the male abdomen is smaller, and has a cone-shaped structure.[2]

Range

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Natural global range

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Tomato stemborer is considered native to the Andean mountain region in South America, specifically surrounding Peru and Bolivia. The species is a worldwide pest commonly found in tomatoes and potatoes. Their presence is reported in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, respectively.[4][5][6] The species is present in the northern part of South America, specifically Ecuador and Colombia. Recently, it is also recorded in Indonesia and Chile.[7]

New Zealand range

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It is believed that tomato stemborer was introduced in New Zealand from South America through anthropogenic activities.[8][9] The larvae were first discovered burrowing into the stem of a native plant, Solanum aviculare on October 4, 1979, in Waitara, Taranaki.[8] On February 14, 1980, small caterpillars were identified as tomato stemborers, and they were found to be connected to dark lesions on stems and near leaf nodes.[8] Later, it was also found that the tomato stemborer also feeds on S. aviculare on Takaka Hill, Riwaka, Nelson, Pukekohe, and Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland.[8][7] [10]

Habitat

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The larvae life stages are located in tomato/potato leaves, petioles, stems, and tubers. Furthermore, it prefers to live in a sub-temperate climate, where temperature is optimum for their survival.[6][2]

Ecology

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Life cycle/Phenology

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After emergence, the female moth can live up to 3-4 nights; tomato stemborers have 12 overlapping lifecycles in a year and each lifecycle lasts for 4-7 weeks. [3] Adult moths typically lay their eggs on invaded plants during nighttime.[3]

Tomato stemborer feeds on tuber stems and solanaceous plants during its larval stage. Their eggs sit in the slits of stems and neonate larvae enter stems through plant axils.[8][2] This causes excrement in the entry hole of the host plant. Furthermore, severe stem damage can also result in the host plant wilting or leading the infested stem to bend-off.[8] Usually, the larvae enters through the stem buds, which are immature growth points of the host plant, on a wound, which could also introduce microorganisms that cause secondary infections.[8][2] Moreover, the pupa develops along the plant debris and exits through a hole ~2–3 mm in diameter.[8] It will take around one day before emerging as an adult.[8][2] Adult females will lay approximately 140-185 eggs on the leaxils of an the fost phant. Then, the cycle repeats.[8][2]

Diet and foraging

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Tomato stemborer parasitizes and forages on tomato/potato leaves, petioles, stems, and tubers during its larval stage. However, in North America, tomato stemborer tend to feed on black nightshade. Moreover, the species has a high preference towards solanaceous plants in general.[8][2][11]

Predators, Parasites, and Diseases

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Possible predators of tomato stemborer are from a variety of insect orders, which includes Heteroptera,[12][13] Hymenoptera,[14] Dermaptera,[15] Coleoptera,[16] Neuroptera,[17] and Thysanoptera.[18] Some predator species are from arachnid families, which include Phytoseiidae[19] and Lycosidae.[20] These orders have proven useful as biocontrol agents against Tuta absoluta, which is in the same family as tomato stemborer.[21] However, further study is needed to fully understand how these predators interact with other biocontrol agents. It would also be beneficial to conduct additional research on selecting insecticide and the most effective natural predators.[21]

Other information

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Tomato stemborer life cycle is highly dependent on temperature. Temperatures around 10-28 °C are optimal for larval growth.[6] Furthermore, eggs and pupae has a high survival rate >80% when temperature conditions are met; immature development takes around 190 days.[6] However, higher temperatures eventually lead to slower growth in larvae, and the threshold for a lower temperature is roughly ~8 °C.[6][2] This also applies to the adult moth, and causes their reproduction and oviposition rates to decline when temperature conditions are not suitable.[2]

When tomato stemborer coexists with Phthorimaea opercuella, crop damage may increase compared to when the species occurs alone, potentially leading to financial losses.[22] Although field losses in the Andes regions in South America can amount to up to 30%, the most economically significant damage is when infected tomatoes or tubers are moved to stores where they become re-infested.[22][2] Within three to four months of storage, farmers who do not have proper protection risk losing all of their house-stored solanaceous produce.[22][2]

(3E,7Z)-Tetradecadienyl acetate is the major sex pheromone for this species.[23] This could help to control the population of S. tangolias, as pheromone traps are used to draw in male adults.[22] Sex-pheromone-baited water or funnel traps reveal the presence of S. tangolias population and this helps tto dentify S.tangolias early on to help with early pest management response.[24][22]

Tomato stemborer might decrease their potential establishment on tropical and subtropical regions due to rising temperatures from climate change.[25] However, there is a high possibility that populations might increase in temperate regions; it is possible that tomato stemborer will spread to several other regions, most likely in Western Europe, in particular, settling in Spain, France, Italy, and potentially Ireland.[26][2]

It is hard to detect the egg or larval stage of tomato stemborer especially when it is infesting crop products.[2] One recommendation is the ban on imports of products from countries with high population of S. tangolias. Thus, preventing the spread of the pest.[2]

References

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  1. ^ "Symmetrischema Povolný, 1967". funet.fi.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Sporleder, M.; Carhuapoma, P.; Kroschel, J. "International Potato Center" (PDF).
  3. ^ a b c d Plant Biosecurity and Product Integrity (2017). "Stem borer". www.dpi.nsw.gov.au.
  4. ^ Terauds, A.; Rapley, P. E. L.; Williams, M. A.; Ireson, J. A; Brieze-Stegeman, R.; McQuillan, P. B (1984). Insect pest occurrences in Tasmania 1982/83. Vol. 16.
  5. ^ Osmelak, J. A. (1987). "The tomato stemborer Symmetrischema plaesiosema (Turner), and the potato moth Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) as stemborers of pepino: first Australian record". General and Applied Entomology: The Journal of the Entomological Society of New South Wales. 19: [49]-56. doi:10.3316/informit.231351101557542.
  6. ^ a b c d e Kroschel, Jürgen; Schaub, Birgit (2013). "Biology and Ecology of Potato Tuber Moths as Major Pests of Potato". Insect Pests of Potato: 165–192. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-386895-4.00006-5.
  7. ^ a b Cabi; Eppo (2020-07-11). "Symmetrischema tangolias . [Distribution map]". Distribution Maps of Plant Pests. doi:10.1079/DMPP/20203285586.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Martin, N. A. (1999). "Arthropods and molluscs associated with poroporo (Solanum aviculare and S. laciniatum) : an annotated species list". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 29: 65–76. doi:10.1080/03014223.1999.9517583.
  9. ^ Edney-Browne, Emma; Brockerhoff, Eckehard G.; Ward, Darren (2018). Establishment patterns of non-native insects in New Zealand. Vol. 20. Biol Invasions. pp. 1657–1669. doi:10.1007/s10530-017-1652-5.
  10. ^ Ward, Darren (2017). First records of exotic insects established in New Zealand. Landcare Research NZ Ltd. doi:10.7931/J20K26HK.
  11. ^ Sporleder, M.; Schaub, B.; Aldana, G.; Kroschel, J. (2017). "Temperature‐dependent phenology and growth potential of the Andean potato tuber moth, Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) (Lep., Gelechiidae)". Journal of Applied Entomology. 141: 202–218. doi:10.1111/jen.12321.
  12. ^ Alomar, Oscar (2017). Facultative predation as a biological control. Vol. II. Encyclopedia of Pest Management. pp. 172–174.
  13. ^ Hamdi; Chermiti, B.; Gauthier, N.; Streito, J-C; Bonato, O. (2013). Macrolophus pygmaeus Wagner (Heteroptera: Miridae) a promising biological control agent for protected tomato crop in Tunisia. International Symposium "Crop Protection Management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture". Vol. 19. Crop protection management in Mediterranean Organic Agriculture ’ISOFAR / MOAN / CTAB Symposium.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ^ Bownes, Angela (2002). The structure of ant communities and their impact on soil-pupating pests in citrus orchards in the Grahamstown area of the Eastern Cape. Rhodes University.
  15. ^ Lenfant, C.; Lyoussoufi, A.; Chen, X.; d'Arcier, F. Faivre; Sauphanor, B. (1994). "Potentialités prédatrices de Forficula auricularia sur le psylle du poirier Cacopsylla pyri". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 73: 51–60. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1994.tb01838.x.
  16. ^ Boothe, R. A.; Ponsonby, D. J. (2006). Searching behaviour in Chilocorus nigritus (F.)(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Vol. 71. pp. 253–261.
  17. ^ Auad, A. M.; Carvalho, C. F.; Souza, B.; Barbosa, L. R. (2003). Biological aspects of Chrysoperla externa (Hagen, 1861)(Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) fed on eggs and larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith, 1797)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Vol. 33. Ciência e Agrotecnologia. p. 31-38.
  18. ^ Desneux, Nicolas; Wajnberg, Eric; Wyckhuys, Kris AG; Burgio, Giovanni; Arpaia, Salvatore; Narváez-Vasquez, Consuelo A.; González-Cabrera, Joel; Catalán Ruescas, Diana; Tabone, Elisabeth; Frandon, Jacques (2010). Biological invasion of European tomato crops by Tuta absoluta: ecology, geographic expansion and prospects for biological control. pp. 197–215.
  19. ^ Mound, Laurence A.; Reynaud, Philippe (2005). "Franklinothrips; a pantropical Thysanoptera genus of ant-mimicking obligate predators (Aeolothripidae)". Zootaxa. 864: 1–16-1–16.
  20. ^ Zhang, Hui-Yuan; Ma, Meng; Dong, Tie; Liu, Xiao-Yong; Zhang, Kun; Wang, Fa-Lin (2010). "Biological control efficiency of Amblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans) on Panonychus ulmi (Koch)". Ying Yong Sheng tai xue bao= The Journal of Applied Ecology: 191–196.
  21. ^ a b Ghoneim, K. (2014). "Predatory insects and arachnids as potential biological control agents against the invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in perspective and prospective" (PDF). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies: 52–71. Cite error: The named reference "Ghoneim, 2014" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  22. ^ a b c d e Kroschel, Jürgen; Zegarra, Octavio (May 2010). "Attract-and-kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration: Attract-and-kill for the potato tuber moth". Pest Management Science. 66 (5): 490–496. doi:10.1002/ps.1898. Cite error: The named reference "Kroschel & Zegarra, 2010" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  23. ^ Awalekar, Ramchandra; Mohire, Priyanka; Patravale, Ajinkya; Salunkhe, Shilpa; Usmani, Shams (2021). "Total Stereospecific Synthesis of (3E,7Z)-Tetradecadienyl Acetate, the major sex pheromone component of the potato pest Symmetrischema tangolias". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 56: 1000–1004. doi:10.1007/s10600-021-03537-1.
  24. ^ Griepink, Frans C.; van Beek, Teris A.; Visser, J. Hans; Voerman, Simon; de Groot, Aede (1995). Isolation and identification of sex pheromone of Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen)(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) (21 ed.). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. pp. 2003–2013.
  25. ^ Dangles, Olivier; Carpio, Carlos; Barragan, A. R.; Zeddam, J.-L.; Silvain, J.-F. (2008). Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes. Vol. 18. pp. 1795–1809.
  26. ^ Dangles, Olivier; Carpio, Carlos; Barragan, A. R.; Zeddam, J.-L.; Silvain, J.-F. (2008). Temperature as a key driver of ecological sorting among invasive pest species in the tropical Andes. Vol. 18. Ecological Applications. pp. 1795–1809.
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