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A "beta male", or simply a beta, is a slang term for men derived from the designation for beta animals in ethology, along with its counterpart, alpha male.^[1]^[2] The term has been used as a pejorative self-identifier among members of manosphere communities, particularly alphas, who are assertive and traditionally masculine, and overlook women.^[3]^[4] It is also used to negatively describe other men who are not assertive, particularly in heterosexual relationships. Betas are at the bottom of the social hierarchy, but are also a majority of the population. At the top of the social hierarchy are the less common alphas and sigmas

^ Hawley, P. H.; Little, Todd D.; Card, Noel A. (January 2008). "The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 32 (1): 76–88. doi:10.1177/0165025407084054. S2CID 145156929.
^ Hosie, Rachel (9 May 2017). "The Myth of the Alpha Male". The Independent.
^ Jones, Callum; Trott, Verity; Wright, Scott (2020). "Sluts and soyboys: MGTOW and the production of misogynistic online harassment". New Media & Society. 22 (10): 1903–1921. doi:10.1177/1461444819887141. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 210530415.
^ Nicholas, Lucy; Agius, Christine (2018). The Persistence of Global Masculinism: Discourse, Gender and Neo-Colonial Re-Articulations of Violence. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68360-7. ISBN 978-3-319-68359-1. LCCN 2017954971. Archived from the original on 2020-08-11. Retrieved 2020-07-17.

[1] Hawley, P. H.; Little, Todd D.; Card, Noel A. (January 2008). "The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 32 (1): 76–88. doi:10.1177/0165025407084054. S2CID 145156929.

[2] Hosie, Rachel (9 May 2017). "The Myth of the Alpha Male". The Independent.

[Jones_2020-3] Jones, Callum; Trott, Verity; Wright, Scott (2020). "Sluts and soyboys: MGTOW and the production of misogynistic online harassment". New Media & Society. 22 (10): 1903–1921. doi:10.1177/1461444819887141. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 210530415.

[Nicholas_2018-4] Nicholas, Lucy; Agius, Christine (2018). The Persistence of Global Masculinism: Discourse, Gender and Neo-Colonial Re-Articulations of Violence. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68360-7. ISBN 978-3-319-68359-1. LCCN 2017954971. Archived from the original on 2020-08-11. Retrieved 2020-07-17.

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-{{short description|Second letter of the Greek alphabet}}
+{{Short description|none}}
+A "beta male", or simply a beta, is a slang term for men derived from the designation for beta animals in ethology, along with its counterpart, alpha male.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hawley |first1=P. H. |last2=Little |first2=Todd D. |last3=Card |first3=Noel A. |date=January 2008 |title=The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247779752 |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Development |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=76–88|doi=10.1177/0165025407084054 |s2cid=145156929 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hosie |first=Rachel |date=9 May 2017 |title=The Myth of the Alpha Male |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the-myth-of-the-alpha-male-a7724971.html}}</ref> The term has been used as a pejorative self-identifier among members of manosphere communities, particularly alphas, who are assertive and traditionally masculine, and overlook women.<ref name="Jones 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Callum |last2=Trott |first2=Verity |last3=Wright |first3=Scott |date=2020 |title=Sluts and soyboys: MGTOW and the production of misogynistic online harassment |journal=New Media & Society |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1903–1921 |doi=10.1177/1461444819887141 |s2cid=210530415 |issn=1461-4448 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref name="Nicholas 2018">{{Cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Lucy |last2=Agius |first2=Christine |year=2018 |title=The Persistence of Global Masculinism: Discourse, Gender and Neo-Colonial Re-Articulations of Violence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8I9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-68360-7 |isbn=978-3-319-68359-1 |lccn=2017954971 |access-date=2020-07-17 |archive-date=2020-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811114131/https://books.google.com/books?id=e8I9DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live}}</ref> It is also used to negatively describe other men who are not assertive, particularly in heterosexual relationships. Betas are at the bottom of the social hierarchy, but are also a majority of the population. At the top of the social hierarchy are the less common alphas and sigmas
-{{Distinguish|B|Betta|Ve (Cyrillic)}}
-{{for multi|the German eszett|ß|the Chinese radical|阝|the Malayalam script|ദ||Beta (disambiguation)}}
-{{more citations needed|date=December 2012}}
-{{Greek Alphabet|letter=beta}}
-'''Beta''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|b|iː|t|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|b|eɪ|t|ə}}; uppercase {{Script|Grek|'''Β'''}}, lowercase {{not a typo|{{Script|Grek|'''β'''}}}}, or [[cursive Greek|cursive]] {{Script|Grek|[[#Typography|{{not a typo|ϐ}}]]}}; {{lang-grc|βῆτα|bē̂ta}} or {{lang-ell|βήτα|víta}}) is the second letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 2. In [[Ancient Greek]], beta represented the [[voiced bilabial plosive]] {{IPA-el|b|IPA}}. In [[Modern Greek]], it represents the [[voiced labiodental fricative]] {{IPA-el|v|IPA}} while {{IPA-el|b|IPA}} in borrowed words is instead commonly transcribed as μπ.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Romanization of Greek for Geographical Names (1987) |url=http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_el.htm |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.eki.ee}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronouncing the Greek Alphabet |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-greek-alphabet-1705558 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref> Letters that arose from beta include the Roman letter {{angle bracket|[[B]]}} and the Cyrillic letters {{angle bracket|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]}} and {{angle bracket|[[Ve (Cyrillic)|В]]}}.
-==Name==
-Like the names of most other Greek letters, the name of beta was adopted from the [[acrophony|acrophonic]] name of the corresponding letter in [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], which was the common [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word {{lang|sem-x-proto|*bayt}} ('house', compare {{lang-ar|بيت}} {{lang|ar-Latn|bayt}} and {{lang-he|בית}} {{lang|he-Latn|báyit}}). In Greek, the name was {{lang|grc|βῆτα}} {{lang|grc-Latn|bêta}}, pronounced {{IPA-el|bɛ̂ːta|}} in Ancient Greek. It is spelled {{lang|el|βήτα}} in modern monotonic orthography and pronounced {{IPA-el|ˈvita|}}.
-==History==
-{{see also|Archaic Greek alphabets}}
-The letter beta was derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician letter]] [[Bet (letter)|beth]] [[Image:Phoenician beth.svg|20px|Beth]].
-{{cn span|text=The letter Β had the largest number of highly divergent local forms. Besides the standard form (either rounded or pointed, {{GrGl|Beta 16}}), there were forms as varied as {{GrGl|Beta 12}} ([[Gortyn]]), {{GrGl|Beta 01}} and {{GrGl|Beta 10}} ([[Thera]]), {{GrGl|Beta 03}} ([[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]), {{GrGl|Beta 05}} ([[Melos]]), {{GrGl|Beta Corinth 1}} ([[Corinth]]), {{GrGl|Beta Byzantium 1}} ([[Megara]], [[Byzantium]]), and {{GrGl|Gamma C-shaped}} ([[Cyclades]]).|date=July 2022}}
-==Uses==
-[[File:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|The Greek alphabet on an ancient [[black figure]] vessel, with the characteristically angular beta of the time]]
-===Algebraic numerals===
-In the system of [[Greek numerals]], beta has a value of 2. Such use is denoted by a number mark: Β′.
-===Computing===
-{{see also|Software release life cycle#Beta|Alpha–beta pruning}}
-===Finance===
-[[Beta (finance)|Beta is used in finance]] as a measure of (historical; pseudo-implied) financial asset '''sensitivity to the relevant benchmark index'''. Conditional on the benchmark index, the resulting '''beta value can vary considerably''' (S&P500 vs NASDAQ vs ETF of a specific industry).
-Beta '''should not be confused with standard deviation''' (or the semi-variance, which considers only negative returns): the preferred measure of the "riskiness" (historical volatility of returns) of a financial asset or a portfolio in isolation.
-Beta can be calculated as the covariance of a financial asset (or portfolio) with its benchmark index, divided by the variance of the benchmark index.
-Since the industry of finance gravitates towards return generating activities, typically the historical returns (percentage changes) are used in the calculations Beta values (among others).
-There are numerous other methods a financial analyst can employ to derive Beta values if historical prices are not available.
-Beta values change over time (company restructuring; industry sentiment; endo/exogenous factors).  Beta values also vary, conditional on the time period used in calculating a Beta value.
-Beta values can be negative, which infers the existence of financial assets which historically, tended to move in opposite directions to one another by some unit value.
-It would seem these are the optimal "hedges" to offset market-draw-downs, during periods of market-stress and poor liquidity Beta values can vary dramatically, and previously low or even negative correlations converge to "1".
-A beta of 1.5 implies that for every 1% change in the value of the benchmark index, the portfolio's value tends to change by 1.5%.
-The greater the absolute value, the greater the implied move.
-===International Phonetic Alphabet===
-In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], Greek minuscule beta denotes a [[voiced bilabial fricative]] {{ipa|[β]}}.
-A superscript version may also indicate a [[compressed vowel]], like {{IPA|[ɯᵝ]}}.
-===Meteorology===
-Beta has twice been used to [[Tropical cyclone naming|name]] an Atlantic Basin [[tropical cyclone]]:
-* [[Hurricane Beta]], in [[2005 Atlantic hurricane season|2005]]
-* [[Tropical Storm Beta (2020)|Tropical Storm Beta]], in [[2020 Atlantic hurricane season|2020]]
-===Mathematics and science===
-Beta is often used to denote a variable in mathematics and physics, where it often has specific meanings for certain applications. In physics a stream of unbound energetic electrons is commonly referred to as [[beta radiation]] or [[beta rays]]. Decays producing electrons or their antiparticles are called [[beta decay]]s. In [[regression analysis]], {{angle bracket|B}} symbolizes nonstandardized partial slope coefficients, whereas {{angle bracket|β}} represents [[Standardized coefficient|standardized (standard deviation-score form) coefficients]]; in both cases, the coefficients reflect the change in the criterion Y per one-unit change in the value of the associated predictor X. β is also used in biology, for instance in [[Beta-Carotene|β-Carotene]], a primary source of [[provitamin]] [[Vitamin A|A]], or the [[Β Cells|β cells]] in [[pancreatic islets]], which produce [[insulin]].
-β is sometimes used as a placeholder for an [[ordinal number]] if α is already used. For example, the two roots of a [[quadratic equation]] are typically labelled {{math|''α''}} and {{math|''β''}}.
-In spaceflight, [[beta angle]] describes the angle between the orbit plane of a spacecraft or other body and the vector from the sun.
-β is sometimes used to mean the [[proton-to-electron mass ratio]].
-The uppercase letter beta is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase [[B|Latin B]].
-===Rock climbing terminology===
-The term "[[Beta (climbing)|beta]]" refers to advice on how to successfully complete a particular climbing route, boulder problem, or crux sequence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rockandice.com/how-to-climb/climbing-terminology/|title=Rock & Ice – Climbing Terminology|last=Rock and Ice|date=3 October 2016}}</ref>
-=== Slang ===
-{{main|Alpha and beta male}}
-''Beta male'', or simply ''beta'', is a slang term for men derived from the designation for beta animals in ethology, along with its counterpart, ''[[Alpha and beta male|alpha male.]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hawley |first1=P. H. |last2=Little |first2=Todd D. |last3=Card |first3=Noel A. |date=January 2008 |title=The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247779752 |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Development |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=76–88|doi=10.1177/0165025407084054 |s2cid=145156929 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hosie |first=Rachel |date=9 May 2017 |title=The Myth of the Alpha Male |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the-myth-of-the-alpha-male-a7724971.html}}</ref> The term has been used as a pejorative self-identifier among members of [[manosphere]] communities, particularly [[incel]]s, who do not believe they are assertive or traditionally [[masculine]], and feel overlooked by women.<ref name="Jones 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Callum |last2=Trott |first2=Verity |last3=Wright |first3=Scott |date=2020 |title=Sluts and soyboys: MGTOW and the production of misogynistic online harassment |journal=New Media & Society |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1903–1921 |doi=10.1177/1461444819887141 |s2cid=210530415 |issn=1461-4448 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref name="Nicholas 2018">{{Cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Lucy |last2=Agius |first2=Christine |year=2018 |title=The Persistence of Global Masculinism: Discourse, Gender and Neo-Colonial Re-Articulations of Violence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8I9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-68360-7 |isbn=978-3-319-68359-1 |lccn=2017954971 |access-date=2020-07-17 |archive-date=2020-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811114131/https://books.google.com/books?id=e8I9DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live}}</ref> It is also used to negatively describe other men who are not assertive, particularly in [[heterosexual]] relationships.
-=== Statistics ===
-In statistics, beta may represent [[type II error]], or [[regression analysis|regression]] slope.
-{{anchor|curled beta|Curled beta}}<!--linked from [[Romanization of Greek]], [[ϐ]], [[Curled beta]], &c.-->
-===Typography===
-In some high-quality typesetting, especially in the French tradition, a typographic variant of the lowercase letter without a [[descender]] is used within a word for [[ancient Greek]]: {{lang|el|βίβλος}} is printed {{lang|el|βί{{not a typo|ϐ}}λος}}.<ref name="haralambous">{{cite web|last=Haralambous|first=Yannis|title=From Unicode to typography, a case study: the Greek script|url=http://omega.enstb.org/yannis/pdf/boston99.pdf|year=1999|page=7|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615031345/http://omega.enstb.org/yannis/pdf/boston99.pdf|archive-date=2011-06-15}}</ref>
-In typesetting technical literature, it is a commonly made mistake to use the [[ß|German letter ß]] (a s–z or s–s ligature) as a replacement for β. The two letters resemble each other in some fonts, but they are unrelated.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aguilar Ruiz|first1=Manuel José|title="Las normas ortográficas y ortotipográficas de la nueva Ortografía de la lengua española (2010) aplicadas a las publicaciones biomédicas en español: una visión de conjunto|journal=Panace@|date=2013|volume=14|issue=37|page=104|url=http://www.medtrad.org/panacea/IndiceGeneral/n37-tribuna-MJAguilarRuiz.pdf}}</ref>
-===Videotape formats===
-"Beta" can be used to refer to several consumer and professional videotape formats developed by Japan's [[Sony|Sony Corporation]]. Although similarly named, they are very different in function and obsolescence.
-* [[Betamax]] was the name of a domestic videotape format developed in the 1970s and 1980s. It competed with the Video Home System ([[VHS]]) format developed by the [[JVC|Japanese Victor Company]], to which it eventually succumbed. The Betamax format was also marketed [[Betacord]] by (Sanyo); some cassettes were simply labeled "Beta", and the logo was a lower-case beta. Betamax lost in the market and is an oft-used example of a technically superior solution that failed due to market forces.
-* [[Betacam]], including Beta SP and DigiBeta, is a family of professional videotape formats launched in 1982 that was the de facto standard for professional video, advertising, and television production through the 2000s. The formats outlasted analog [[NTSC]] television, and their scarcity today is because the industry has moved to [[High-definition video|HD]] formats.
-== Character encodings ==
-===Greek Beta===
-{{charmap
-|0392|name1=Greek Capital Letter Beta
-|03B2|name2=Greek Small Letter Beta
-|03D0|name3=Greek Beta Symbol
-|1D5D|name4=Modifier Letter Small Beta
-|1D66|name5=Greek Subscript Small Letter Beta
-|map2=DOS Greek|map2char1=81|map2char2=99
-|map3=DOS Greek-2|map3char1=A5|map3char2=D7
-|map4=Windows 1253|map4char1=C2|map4char2=E2
-|namedref1=TeX|ref1char2=\beta
-}}
-===Coptic Vida===
-{{charmap
-|2C82|name1=Coptic Capital Letter Vida
-|2C83|name2=Coptic Small Letter Vida}}
-===[[Latin beta|Latin Beta]]===
-{{charmap
-|A7B4|name1=Latin Capital Letter Beta
-|A7B5|name2=Latin Small Letter Beta
-}}
-===Mathematical Beta===
-{{charmap
-|1D6A9|name1=Mathematical Bold<br />Capital Beta
-|1D6C3|name2=Mathematical Bold<br />Small Beta
-|1D6E3|name3=Mathematical Italic<br />Capital Beta
-|1D6FD|name4=Mathematical Italic<br />Small Beta
-|1D71D|name5=Mathematical Bold Italic<br />Capital Beta
-|1D737|name6=Mathematical Bold Italic<br />Small Beta
-}}
-{{charmap
-|1D757|name1=Mathematical Sans-Serif<br />Bold Capital Beta
-|1D771|name2=Mathematical Sans-Serif<br />Bold Small Beta
-|1D791|name3=Mathematical Sans-Serif<br />Bold Italic Capital Beta
-|1D7AB|name4=Mathematical Sans-Serif<br />Bold Italic Small Beta
-}}
-These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.
-===Japanese square katakana compatibility===
-It corresponds to {{lang|ja|ベータ}} {{transl|ja|bēta}}.
-{{Charmap
-|333C|name1= Square beeta
-}}
-==References==
-{{Wiktionary|Β|β}}
-{{reflist}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Beta (Letter)}}
-[[Category:Greek letters]]
-[[Category:Phonetic transcription symbols]]