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== Graphene ==
== Graphene ==
The honeycomb structure allows [[Electron|electrons]] to behave as massless [[Quasiparticle|quasiparticles]] known as [[Dirac fermions]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geim|first1=A. K.|last2=Novoselov|first2=K. S.|s2cid=14647602|title=The rise of graphene|journal=Nature Materials|date=March 2007|volume=6|issue=3|pages=183–91|doi=10.1038/nmat1849|pmid=17330084|bibcode = 2007NatMa...6..183G |arxiv=cond-mat/0702595}}</ref> Graphene's [[optical conductivity]] properties are thus unobstructed by any material parameters (represented by Equation 1), where {{mvar|e}} is the [[electron charge]], {{math|''h''}} is [[Planck constant|Planck's constant]] and {{math|''e''<sup>2</sup>/''h''}} represents the universal conductance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grigorenko|first1=A. N.|last2=Polini|first2=M.|last3=Novoselov|first3=K. S.|s2cid=119285513|title=Graphene plasmonics|journal=Nature Photonics|date=5 November 2012|volume=6|issue=11|pages=749–58|doi=10.1038/nphoton.2012.262|arxiv = 1301.4241 |bibcode = 2012NaPho...6..749G }}</ref>
The honeycomb structure allows [[Electron|electrons]] to behave as massless [[Quasiparticle|quasiparticles]] known as [[Dirac fermions]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geim|first1=A. K.|last2=Novoselov|first2=K. S.|s2cid=14647602|title=The rise of graphene|journal=Nature Materials|date=March 2007|volume=6|issue=3|pages=183–91|doi=10.1038/nmat1849|pmid=17330084|bibcode = 2007NatMa...6..183G |arxiv=cond-mat/0702595}}</ref> Graphene's [[optical conductivity]] properties are thus unobstructed by any material parameters (represented by Equation 1), where {{mvar|e}} is the [[electron charge]], {{math|''h''}} is the [[Planck constant]] and {{math|''e''<sup>2</sup>/''h''}} represents the universal conductance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grigorenko|first1=A. N.|last2=Polini|first2=M.|last3=Novoselov|first3=K. S.|s2cid=119285513|title=Graphene plasmonics|journal=Nature Photonics|date=5 November 2012|volume=6|issue=11|pages=749–58|doi=10.1038/nphoton.2012.262|arxiv = 1301.4241 |bibcode = 2012NaPho...6..749G }}</ref>
:<math>\sigma_{\text{uni}} = \frac{(\pi)e^2}{2h}</math> (Equation 1)
:<math>\sigma_{\text{uni}} = \frac{(\pi)e^2}{2h}</math> (Equation 1)


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This behavior is the result of an undoped graphene material at [[Absolute zero|zero temperature]] (Figure 1a).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Z. Q.|last2=Henriksen|first2=E. A.|last3=Jiang|first3=Z.|last4=Hao|first4=Z.|last5=Martin|first5=M. C.|last6=Kim|first6=P.|last7=Stormer|first7=H. L.|last8=Basov|first8=D. N.|s2cid=5867656|title=Dirac charge dynamics in graphene by infrared spectroscopy|journal=Nature Physics|date=8 June 2008|volume=4|issue=7|pages=532–35|doi=10.1038/nphys989|arxiv=0807.3780}}</ref> In contrast to traditional [[Semiconductor|semiconductors]] or metals (Figure 1b); graphene's [[band gap]] is nearly nonexistent because the conducting and [[Valence and conduction bands|valence bands]] make contact (Figure 1a). However, the band gap is tunable via [[Doping (semiconductor)|doping]] and [[Gating (electrophysiology)|electrical gating]], changing optical properties.<ref name="NatureJournal">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yuanbo|last2=Tang|first2=Tsung-Ta|last3=Girit|first3=Caglar|last4=Hao|first4=Zhao|last5=Martin|first5=Michael C.|last6=Zettl|first6=Alex|last7=Crommie|first7=Michael F.|last8=Shen|first8=Y. Ron|last9=Wang|first9=Feng|s2cid=205217165|title=Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene|journal=Nature|date=11 June 2009|volume=459|issue=7248|pages=820–23|doi=10.1038/nature08105|pmid=19516337|bibcode = 2009Natur.459..820Z |osti=974550}}</ref> As a result of its tunable conductivity, graphene is suitable for various optical applications.
This behavior is the result of an undoped graphene material at [[Absolute zero|zero temperature]] (Figure 1a).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Z. Q.|last2=Henriksen|first2=E. A.|last3=Jiang|first3=Z.|last4=Hao|first4=Z.|last5=Martin|first5=M. C.|last6=Kim|first6=P.|last7=Stormer|first7=H. L.|last8=Basov|first8=D. N.|s2cid=5867656|title=Dirac charge dynamics in graphene by infrared spectroscopy|journal=Nature Physics|date=8 June 2008|volume=4|issue=7|pages=532–35|doi=10.1038/nphys989|arxiv=0807.3780}}</ref> In contrast to traditional [[Semiconductor|semiconductors]] or metals (Figure 1b); graphene's [[band gap]] is nearly nonexistent because the conducting and [[Valence and conduction bands|valence bands]] make contact (Figure 1a). However, the band gap is tunable via [[Doping (semiconductor)|doping]] and [[Gating (electrophysiology)|electrical gating]], changing optical properties.<ref name="NatureJournal">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yuanbo|last2=Tang|first2=Tsung-Ta|last3=Girit|first3=Caglar|last4=Hao|first4=Zhao|last5=Martin|first5=Michael C.|last6=Zettl|first6=Alex|last7=Crommie|first7=Michael F.|last8=Shen|first8=Y. Ron|last9=Wang|first9=Feng|s2cid=205217165|title=Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene|journal=Nature|date=11 June 2009|volume=459|issue=7248|pages=820–23|doi=10.1038/nature08105|pmid=19516337|bibcode = 2009Natur.459..820Z |osti=974550}}</ref> As a result of its tunable conductivity, graphene is suitable for various optical applications.


==Applications==
== Applications ==


===Photodetectors===
=== Photodetectors ===


Electrical gating and doping allows for adjustment of graphene's optical [[Absorptance|absorptivity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koppens|first1=F. H. L.|last2=Mueller|first2=T.|last3=Avouris|first3=Ph.|last4=Ferrari|first4=A. C.|last5=Vitiello|first5=M. S.|last6=Polini|first6=M.|title=Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=6 October 2014|volume=9|issue=10|pages=780–93|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.215|pmid=25286273|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..780K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=F.|last2=Zhang|first2=Y.|last3=Tian|first3=C.|last4=Girit|first4=C.|last5=Zettl|first5=A.|author5-link=Alex Zettl|last6=Crommie|first6=M.|last7=Shen|first7=Y. R.|s2cid=9321526|title=Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene|journal=Science|date=11 April 2008|volume=320|issue=5873|pages=206–09|doi=10.1126/science.1152793|pmid=18339901|bibcode = 2008Sci...320..206W }}</ref> The application of [[Electric field|electric fields]] transverse to staggered graphene bilayers generates a shift in [[Fermi energy]] and an artificial, non-zero band gap (Equation 2,<ref name="NatureJournal" /> Figure 1).
Electrical gating and doping allows for adjustment of graphene's optical [[Absorptance|absorptivity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koppens|first1=F. H. L.|last2=Mueller|first2=T.|last3=Avouris|first3=Ph.|last4=Ferrari|first4=A. C.|last5=Vitiello|first5=M. S.|last6=Polini|first6=M.|title=Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=6 October 2014|volume=9|issue=10|pages=780–93|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.215|pmid=25286273|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..780K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=F.|last2=Zhang|first2=Y.|last3=Tian|first3=C.|last4=Girit|first4=C.|last5=Zettl|first5=A.|author5-link=Alex Zettl|last6=Crommie|first6=M.|last7=Shen|first7=Y. R.|s2cid=9321526|title=Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene|journal=Science|date=11 April 2008|volume=320|issue=5873|pages=206–09|doi=10.1126/science.1152793|pmid=18339901|bibcode = 2008Sci...320..206W }}</ref> The application of [[Electric field|electric fields]] transverse to staggered graphene bilayers generates a shift in [[Fermi energy]] and an artificial, non-zero band gap (Equation 2,<ref name="NatureJournal" /> Figure 1).


[[File:Figure 24 Optical tunability of graphene under strong electric gating.png|thumb|right|Optical tunability of graphene under strong electric gating]]
[[File:Figure 24 Optical tunability of graphene under strong electric gating.png|thumb|right|Optical tunability of graphene under strong electric gating]]
: <math>\delta D=D_\text{t}-D_\text{b} </math> (Equation 2)

:<math>\delta D=Dt-Db </math> (Equation 2)
where
where
:''Dt'' = top electrical displacement field
: ''D''<sub>t</sub> = top electrical displacement field
:''Db'' = bottom electrical displacement field
: ''D''<sub>b</sub> = bottom electrical displacement field


Varying ''δD'' above or below zero (''δD''=0 denotes non-gated, neutral bilayers) allows electrons to pass through the bilayer without altering the gating-induced band gap.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=F.|last2=Zhang|first2=Y.|last3=Tian|first3=C.|last4=Girit|first4=C.|last5=Zettl|first5=A.|last6=Crommie|first6=M.|last7=Shen|first7=Y. R.|s2cid=9321526|title=Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene|journal=Science|date=11 April 2008|volume=320|issue=5873|pages=206–209|doi=10.1126/science.1152793|pmid=18339901|bibcode = 2008Sci...320..206W }}</ref> Varying the average displacement field, ▁D, alters the bilayer's absorption spectra (as shown in Figure 2). The optical tunability resulting from gating and electrostatic doping (also known as charge plasma doping<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hueting|first1=R. J. E.|last2=Rajasekharan|first2=B.|last3=Salm|first3=C.|last4=Schmitz|first4=J.|s2cid=16320021|title=The charge plasma p-n diode|journal=IEEE Electron Device Letters|date=2008|volume=29|issue=12|pages=1367–1369|doi=10.1109/LED.2008.2006864|bibcode = 2008IEDL...29.1367H |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/the-charge-plasma-pn-diode(a0bee04a-76af-4690-9db3-d8f10b351c42).html}}</ref>) lends to the application of graphene as an ultra-broadband [[photodetector]] in lenses.<ref name="Nano">{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chang-Hua|last2=Chang|first2=You-Chia|last3=Norris|first3=Theodore B.|last4=Zhong|first4=Zhaohui|title=Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=16 March 2014|volume=9|issue=4|pages=273–78|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.31|pmid=24633521|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..273L }}</ref>
Varying ''δD'' above or below zero (''δD''=0 denotes non-gated, neutral bilayers) allows electrons to pass through the bilayer without altering the gating-induced band gap.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=F.|last2=Zhang|first2=Y.|last3=Tian|first3=C.|last4=Girit|first4=C.|last5=Zettl|first5=A.|last6=Crommie|first6=M.|last7=Shen|first7=Y. R.|s2cid=9321526|title=Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene|journal=Science|date=11 April 2008|volume=320|issue=5873|pages=206–209|doi=10.1126/science.1152793|pmid=18339901|bibcode = 2008Sci...320..206W }}</ref> Varying the average displacement field, ''D'', alters the bilayer's absorption spectra (as shown in Figure 2). The optical tunability resulting from gating and electrostatic doping (also known as charge plasma doping<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hueting|first1=R. J. E.|last2=Rajasekharan|first2=B.|last3=Salm|first3=C.|last4=Schmitz|first4=J.|s2cid=16320021|title=The charge plasma p-n diode|journal=IEEE Electron Device Letters|date=2008|volume=29|issue=12|pages=1367–1369|doi=10.1109/LED.2008.2006864|bibcode = 2008IEDL...29.1367H |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/the-charge-plasma-pn-diode(a0bee04a-76af-4690-9db3-d8f10b351c42).html}}</ref>) lends to the application of graphene as an ultra-broadband [[photodetector]] in lenses.<ref name="Nano">{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chang-Hua|last2=Chang|first2=You-Chia|last3=Norris|first3=Theodore B.|last4=Zhong|first4=Zhaohui|title=Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=16 March 2014|volume=9|issue=4|pages=273–78|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.31|pmid=24633521|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..273L }}</ref>


[[File:Figure 3 Schematic of double-layer graphene ultra-broadband photodetector.png|Schematic of double-layer graphene ultra-broadband photodetector (Figure 3)|thumb|right]]
[[File:Figure 3 Schematic of double-layer graphene ultra-broadband photodetector.png|Schematic of double-layer graphene ultra-broadband photodetector (Figure 3)|thumb|right]]


Chang-Hua et al. implemented graphene in an infrared photodetector by sandwiching an insulating barrier of {{Chem|Ta|2|O|5}} between two graphene sheets.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chang-Hua|last2=Chang|first2=You-Chia|last3=Norris|first3=Theodore B.|last4=Zhong|first4=Zhaohui|title=Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=16 March 2014|volume=9|issue=4|pages=273–278|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.31|pmid=24633521|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..273L }}</ref> The graphene layers became electrically isolated and exhibited an average Fermi difference of 0.12[[Electronvolt|eV]] when a current was passed through the bottom layer (Figure 3). When the photodetector is exposed to light, excited hot electrons transitioned from the top graphene layer to the bottom, a process promoted by the structural asymmetry of the insulating {{Chem|Ta|2|O|5}} barrier.<ref name="Nano" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-C.|last2=Suzuki|first2=S.|last3=Xie|first3=W.|last4=Schibli|first4=T. R.|title=Broadband graphene electro-optic modulators with sub-wavelength thickness|journal=Optics Express|date=17 February 2012|volume=20|issue=5|pages=5264–69|doi=10.1364/OE.20.005264|pmid=22418332|bibcode=2012OExpr..20.5264L|doi-access=free}}</ref> As a consequence of the hot electron transition, the top layer accumulates positive charges and induces a photogating <ref name="Nano" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Hongbo B. T.|last2=Schropp|first2=Ruud E. I.|last3=Rubinelli|first3=Francisco A.|title=Photogating effect as a defect probe in hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon solar cells|journal=Journal of Applied Physics|date=2010|volume=108|issue=1|pages=014509–|doi=10.1063/1.3437393|bibcode = 2010JAP...108a4509L |hdl=11336/13706|s2cid=54936938 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> effect on the lower graphene layer, which is measured as a change in current correlating with photon detection.<ref name="NatureJournal" /> Utilizing graphene both as a channel for charge transport and light absorption, the photodetectors ably detects the visible to mid-infrared spectrum. [[Nanometre|Nanometers]] thin and functional at room temperature, graphene photodetectors show promise in lens applications.
Chang-Hua et al. implemented graphene in an infrared photodetector by sandwiching an insulating barrier of {{Chem|Ta|2|O|5}} between two graphene sheets.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chang-Hua|last2=Chang|first2=You-Chia|last3=Norris|first3=Theodore B.|last4=Zhong|first4=Zhaohui|title=Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=16 March 2014|volume=9|issue=4|pages=273–278|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.31|pmid=24633521|bibcode = 2014NatNa...9..273L }}</ref> The graphene layers became electrically isolated and exhibited an average Fermi difference of {{val|0.12|ul=eV}} when a current was passed through the bottom layer (Figure 3). When the photodetector is exposed to light, excited hot electrons transitioned from the top graphene layer to the bottom, a process promoted by the structural asymmetry of the insulating {{Chem|Ta|2|O|5}} barrier.<ref name="Nano" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-C.|last2=Suzuki|first2=S.|last3=Xie|first3=W.|last4=Schibli|first4=T. R.|title=Broadband graphene electro-optic modulators with sub-wavelength thickness|journal=Optics Express|date=17 February 2012|volume=20|issue=5|pages=5264–69|doi=10.1364/OE.20.005264|pmid=22418332|bibcode=2012OExpr..20.5264L|doi-access=free}}</ref> As a consequence of the hot electron transition, the top layer accumulates positive charges and induces a photogating <ref name="Nano" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Hongbo B. T.|last2=Schropp|first2=Ruud E. I.|last3=Rubinelli|first3=Francisco A.|title=Photogating effect as a defect probe in hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon solar cells|journal=Journal of Applied Physics|date=2010|volume=108|issue=1|pages=014509–|doi=10.1063/1.3437393|bibcode = 2010JAP...108a4509L |hdl=11336/13706|s2cid=54936938 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> effect on the lower graphene layer, which is measured as a change in current correlating with photon detection.<ref name="NatureJournal" /> Utilizing graphene both as a channel for charge transport and light absorption, the photodetectors ably detects the visible to mid-infrared spectrum. [[Nanometre|Nanometers]] thin and functional at room temperature, graphene photodetectors show promise in lens applications.


===Fresnel zone plates===
=== Fresnel zone plates ===


[[File:Figure 4 the graphene Fresnel Zone Plate reflects the light off to a single point.png|thumb|right]]
[[File:Figure 4 the graphene Fresnel Zone Plate reflects the light off to a single point.png|thumb|right]]
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[[Fresnel zone]] plates are devices that focus light on a fixed point in space. These devices concentrate light reflected off a lens onto a singular point (Figure 4). Composed of a series of discs centered about an origin, Fresnel zone plates are manufactured using [[laser]] pulses, which embed voids into a reflective lens.
[[Fresnel zone]] plates are devices that focus light on a fixed point in space. These devices concentrate light reflected off a lens onto a singular point (Figure 4). Composed of a series of discs centered about an origin, Fresnel zone plates are manufactured using [[laser]] pulses, which embed voids into a reflective lens.


Despite its weak reflectance (R = 0.25π2 α 2 at T = 1.3 × 10<sup>−4</sup> [[Kelvin|K]]), graphene has utility as a lens for Fresnel zone plates.<ref name="ACS">{{cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Xiang-Tian|last2=Khan|first2=Ammar A.|last3=Kidambi|first3=Piran R.|last4=Deng|first4=Sunan|last5=Yetisen|first5=Ali K.|last6=Dlubak|first6=Bruno|last7=Hiralal|first7=Pritesh|last8=Montelongo|first8=Yunuen|last9=Bowen|first9=James|last10=Xavier|first10=Stéphane|last11=Jiang|first11=Kyle|last12=Amaratunga|first12=Gehan A. J.|last13=Hofmann|first13=Stephan|last14=Wilkinson|first14=Timothy D.|last15=Dai|first15=Qing|last16=Butt|first16=Haider|title=Graphene-Based Ultrathin Flat Lenses|journal=ACS Photonics|date=18 February 2015|volume=2|issue=2|pages=200–07|doi=10.1021/ph500197j|url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/43149/1/ORO%2043149.pdf}}</ref> Graphene lenses effectively concentrate light of ʎ = 850&nbsp;nm onto a single point 120&nbsp;μm away from the Fresnel zone plate<ref name="ACS" /> (Figure 5). Further investigation illustrates that the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the lens<ref name="ACS" /> (Figure 6).
Despite its weak reflectance (''R'' = 0.25''π''<sup>2</sup>''α''<sup>2</sup>''T'' = {{val|1.3|e=−4}}), graphene has utility as a lens for Fresnel zone plates.<ref name="ACS">{{cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Xiang-Tian|last2=Khan|first2=Ammar A.|last3=Kidambi|first3=Piran R.|last4=Deng|first4=Sunan|last5=Yetisen|first5=Ali K.|last6=Dlubak|first6=Bruno|last7=Hiralal|first7=Pritesh|last8=Montelongo|first8=Yunuen|last9=Bowen|first9=James|last10=Xavier|first10=Stéphane|last11=Jiang|first11=Kyle|last12=Amaratunga|first12=Gehan A. J.|last13=Hofmann|first13=Stephan|last14=Wilkinson|first14=Timothy D.|last15=Dai|first15=Qing|last16=Butt|first16=Haider|title=Graphene-Based Ultrathin Flat Lenses|journal=ACS Photonics|date=18 February 2015|volume=2|issue=2|pages=200–07|doi=10.1021/ph500197j|url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/43149/1/ORO%2043149.pdf}}</ref> Graphene lenses effectively concentrate light of ''λ'' = 850&nbsp;nm onto a single point 120&nbsp;μm away from the Fresnel zone plate<ref name="ACS" /> (Figure 5). Further investigation illustrates that the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the lens<ref name="ACS" /> (Figure 6).


[[File:That the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the len.png|That the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the len]]
[[File:That the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the len.png|That the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the len]]


===Transparent conductors===
=== Transparent conductors ===


[[Optoelectronics|Optoelectronic]] components such as [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) displays, [[solar cells]], and [[Touchscreen|touchscreens]] require highly transparent materials with low [[sheet resistance]], ''Rs''. For a thin film, the sheet resistance is given by Equation 3:
[[Optoelectronics|Optoelectronic]] components such as [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) displays, [[solar cells]], and [[Touchscreen|touchscreens]] require highly transparent materials with low [[sheet resistance]], ''R''<sub>s</sub>. For a thin film, the sheet resistance is given by Equation 3:
: <math>R_{\text{s}} = \frac{t}{\sigma}</math> (Equation 3)
where {{mvar|t}} is the film thickness and {{mvar|σ}} is the DC conductivity.


[[File:Graphene’s potential relative to other known transparent conductors.png|Graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors|thumb|right]]
:<math>R_{\text{s}} = \frac{t}{\sigma}</math> (Equation 3)
where {{mvar|t}} is the film thickness and {{mvar|σ}} is the ''DC'' conductivity.


A material with tunable thickness t and conductivity σ is suitable for [[optoelectronic]] applications if Rs is reasonably small. Graphene is such a material; the number of graphene layers that comprise the film can tune t and the inherent tunability of graphene's optical properties via doping or grating can tune sigma. Figure 7 shows graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bae|first1=Sukang|last2=Kim|first2=Hyeongkeun|last3=Lee|first3=Youngbin|last4=Xu|first4=Xiangfan|last5=Park|first5=Jae-Sung|last6=Zheng|first6=Yi|last7=Balakrishnan|first7=Jayakumar|last8=Lei|first8=Tian|last9=Ri Kim|first9=Hye|last10=Song|first10=Young Il|last11=Kim|first11=Young-Jin|last12=Kim|first12=Kwang S.|last13=Özyilmaz|first13=Barbaros|last14=Ahn|first14=Jong-Hyun|last15=Hong|first15=Byung Hee|last16=Iijima|first16=Sumio|title=Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=20 June 2010|volume=5|issue=8|pages=574–78|doi=10.1038/nnano.2010.132|pmid=20562870|bibcode = 2010NatNa...5..574B |citeseerx=10.1.1.176.439|s2cid=7359174 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geng|first1=Hong-Zhang|last2=Kim|first2=Ki Kang|last3=So|first3=Kang Pyo|last4=Lee|first4=Young Sil|last5=Chang|first5=Youngkyu|last6=Lee|first6=Young Hee|title=Effect of Acid Treatment on Carbon Nanotube-Based Flexible Transparent Conducting Films|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|date=June 2007|volume=129|issue=25|pages=7758–59|doi=10.1021/ja0722224|pmid=17536805}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Jung-Yong|last2=Connor|first2=Stephen T.|last3=Cui|first3=Yi|last4=Peumans|first4=Peter|title=Solution-Processed Metal Nanowire Mesh Transparent Electrodes|journal=Nano Letters|date=February 2008|volume=8|issue=2|pages=689–92|doi=10.1021/nl073296g|pmid=18189445|bibcode = 2008NanoL...8..689L |s2cid=17022574 |citeseerx=10.1.1.463.7007}}</ref>
A material with tunable thickness ''t'' and conductivity ''σ'' is suitable for [[optoelectronic]] applications if ''R''<sub>s</sub> is reasonably small. Graphene is such a material; the number of graphene layers that comprise the film can tune t and the inherent tunability of graphene's optical properties via doping or grating can tune sigma. Figure 7 shows graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bae|first1=Sukang|last2=Kim|first2=Hyeongkeun|last3=Lee|first3=Youngbin|last4=Xu|first4=Xiangfan|last5=Park|first5=Jae-Sung|last6=Zheng|first6=Yi|last7=Balakrishnan|first7=Jayakumar|last8=Lei|first8=Tian|last9=Ri Kim|first9=Hye|last10=Song|first10=Young Il|last11=Kim|first11=Young-Jin|last12=Kim|first12=Kwang S.|last13=Özyilmaz|first13=Barbaros|last14=Ahn|first14=Jong-Hyun|last15=Hong|first15=Byung Hee|last16=Iijima|first16=Sumio|title=Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|date=20 June 2010|volume=5|issue=8|pages=574–78|doi=10.1038/nnano.2010.132|pmid=20562870|bibcode = 2010NatNa...5..574B |citeseerx=10.1.1.176.439|s2cid=7359174 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Geng|first1=Hong-Zhang|last2=Kim|first2=Ki Kang|last3=So|first3=Kang Pyo|last4=Lee|first4=Young Sil|last5=Chang|first5=Youngkyu|last6=Lee|first6=Young Hee|title=Effect of Acid Treatment on Carbon Nanotube-Based Flexible Transparent Conducting Films|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|date=June 2007|volume=129|issue=25|pages=7758–59|doi=10.1021/ja0722224|pmid=17536805}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Jung-Yong|last2=Connor|first2=Stephen T.|last3=Cui|first3=Yi|last4=Peumans|first4=Peter|title=Solution-Processed Metal Nanowire Mesh Transparent Electrodes|journal=Nano Letters|date=February 2008|volume=8|issue=2|pages=689–92|doi=10.1021/nl073296g|pmid=18189445|bibcode = 2008NanoL...8..689L |s2cid=17022574 |citeseerx=10.1.1.463.7007}}</ref>

[[File:Graphene’s potential relative to other known transparent conductors.png|Graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors|thumb|right]]


The need for alternative transparent conductors is well documented.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Minami|first1=Tadatsugu|title=Transparent conducting oxide semiconductors for transparent electrodes|journal=Semiconductor Science and Technology|date=1 April 2005|volume=20|issue=4|pages=S35–S44|doi=10.1088/0268-1242/20/4/004|bibcode = 2005SeScT..20S..35M |s2cid=93242002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holland|first1=L.|last2=Siddall|first2=G.|title=the properties of some reactively sputtered metal oxide films|journal=Vacuum|date=October 1953|volume=3|issue=4|pages=375–91|doi=10.1016/0042-207X(53)90411-4|bibcode=1953Vacuu...3..375H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hamberg|first1=I.|last2=Granqvist|first2=C. G.|title=Evaporated Sn-doped In2O3 films: Basic optical properties and applications to energy-efficient windows|journal=Journal of Applied Physics|date=1986|volume=60|issue=11|pages=R123|doi=10.1063/1.337534|bibcode = 1986JAP....60R.123H }}</ref> [[Semiconductor]] based transparent conductors such as doped [[Indium(III) oxide|indium]] [[Oxide|oxides]], [[Zinc oxide|zinc oxides]], or [[Tin oxide|tin oxides]] suffer from practical downfalls including rigorous processing requirements, prohibitive cost, sensitivity toward Ph, and brittle consistency. However, graphene does not suffer from these shortfalls.
The need for alternative transparent conductors is well documented.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Minami|first1=Tadatsugu|title=Transparent conducting oxide semiconductors for transparent electrodes|journal=Semiconductor Science and Technology|date=1 April 2005|volume=20|issue=4|pages=S35–S44|doi=10.1088/0268-1242/20/4/004|bibcode = 2005SeScT..20S..35M |s2cid=93242002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holland|first1=L.|last2=Siddall|first2=G.|title=the properties of some reactively sputtered metal oxide films|journal=Vacuum|date=October 1953|volume=3|issue=4|pages=375–91|doi=10.1016/0042-207X(53)90411-4|bibcode=1953Vacuu...3..375H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hamberg|first1=I.|last2=Granqvist|first2=C. G.|title=Evaporated Sn-doped In2O3 films: Basic optical properties and applications to energy-efficient windows|journal=Journal of Applied Physics|date=1986|volume=60|issue=11|pages=R123|doi=10.1063/1.337534|bibcode = 1986JAP....60R.123H }}</ref> [[Semiconductor]]-based transparent conductors such as doped [[Indium(III) oxide|indium]] [[Oxide|oxides]], [[Zinc oxide|zinc oxides]], or [[Tin oxide|tin oxides]] suffer from practical downfalls including rigorous processing requirements, prohibitive cost, sensitivity to pH, and brittle consistency. However, graphene does not suffer from these shortfalls.


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Graphene]]
[[Category:Graphene]]

Latest revision as of 01:00, 23 September 2024

A graphene lens is an optical refraction device. Graphene's unique 2-D honeycomb contributes to its unique optical properties.

Graphene

[edit]

The honeycomb structure allows electrons to behave as massless quasiparticles known as Dirac fermions.[1] Graphene's optical conductivity properties are thus unobstructed by any material parameters (represented by Equation 1), where e is the electron charge, h is the Planck constant and e2/h represents the universal conductance.[2]

(Equation 1)

This behavior is the result of an undoped graphene material at zero temperature (Figure 1a).[3] In contrast to traditional semiconductors or metals (Figure 1b); graphene's band gap is nearly nonexistent because the conducting and valence bands make contact (Figure 1a). However, the band gap is tunable via doping and electrical gating, changing optical properties.[4] As a result of its tunable conductivity, graphene is suitable for various optical applications.

Applications

[edit]

Photodetectors

[edit]

Electrical gating and doping allows for adjustment of graphene's optical absorptivity.[5][6] The application of electric fields transverse to staggered graphene bilayers generates a shift in Fermi energy and an artificial, non-zero band gap (Equation 2,[4] Figure 1).

Optical tunability of graphene under strong electric gating
(Equation 2)

where

Dt = top electrical displacement field
Db = bottom electrical displacement field

Varying δD above or below zero (δD=0 denotes non-gated, neutral bilayers) allows electrons to pass through the bilayer without altering the gating-induced band gap.[7] Varying the average displacement field, D, alters the bilayer's absorption spectra (as shown in Figure 2). The optical tunability resulting from gating and electrostatic doping (also known as charge plasma doping[8]) lends to the application of graphene as an ultra-broadband photodetector in lenses.[9]

Schematic of double-layer graphene ultra-broadband photodetector (Figure 3)

Chang-Hua et al. implemented graphene in an infrared photodetector by sandwiching an insulating barrier of Ta
2
O
5
between two graphene sheets.[10] The graphene layers became electrically isolated and exhibited an average Fermi difference of 0.12 eV when a current was passed through the bottom layer (Figure 3). When the photodetector is exposed to light, excited hot electrons transitioned from the top graphene layer to the bottom, a process promoted by the structural asymmetry of the insulating Ta
2
O
5
barrier.[9][11] As a consequence of the hot electron transition, the top layer accumulates positive charges and induces a photogating [9][12] effect on the lower graphene layer, which is measured as a change in current correlating with photon detection.[4] Utilizing graphene both as a channel for charge transport and light absorption, the photodetectors ably detects the visible to mid-infrared spectrum. Nanometers thin and functional at room temperature, graphene photodetectors show promise in lens applications.

Fresnel zone plates

[edit]

Fresnel zone plates are devices that focus light on a fixed point in space. These devices concentrate light reflected off a lens onto a singular point (Figure 4). Composed of a series of discs centered about an origin, Fresnel zone plates are manufactured using laser pulses, which embed voids into a reflective lens.

Despite its weak reflectance (R = 0.25π2α2T = 1.3×10−4), graphene has utility as a lens for Fresnel zone plates.[13] Graphene lenses effectively concentrate light of λ = 850 nm onto a single point 120 μm away from the Fresnel zone plate[13] (Figure 5). Further investigation illustrates that the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the lens[13] (Figure 6).

That the reflected intensity increases linearly with the number of graphene layers within the len

Transparent conductors

[edit]

Optoelectronic components such as light-emitting diode (LED) displays, solar cells, and touchscreens require highly transparent materials with low sheet resistance, Rs. For a thin film, the sheet resistance is given by Equation 3:

(Equation 3)

where t is the film thickness and σ is the DC conductivity.

Graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors

A material with tunable thickness t and conductivity σ is suitable for optoelectronic applications if Rs is reasonably small. Graphene is such a material; the number of graphene layers that comprise the film can tune t and the inherent tunability of graphene's optical properties via doping or grating can tune sigma. Figure 7 shows graphene's potential relative to other known transparent conductors.[14][15][16]

The need for alternative transparent conductors is well documented.[17][18][19] Semiconductor-based transparent conductors such as doped indium oxides, zinc oxides, or tin oxides suffer from practical downfalls including rigorous processing requirements, prohibitive cost, sensitivity to pH, and brittle consistency. However, graphene does not suffer from these shortfalls.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Geim, A. K.; Novoselov, K. S. (March 2007). "The rise of graphene". Nature Materials. 6 (3): 183–91. arXiv:cond-mat/0702595. Bibcode:2007NatMa...6..183G. doi:10.1038/nmat1849. PMID 17330084. S2CID 14647602.
  2. ^ Grigorenko, A. N.; Polini, M.; Novoselov, K. S. (5 November 2012). "Graphene plasmonics". Nature Photonics. 6 (11): 749–58. arXiv:1301.4241. Bibcode:2012NaPho...6..749G. doi:10.1038/nphoton.2012.262. S2CID 119285513.
  3. ^ Li, Z. Q.; Henriksen, E. A.; Jiang, Z.; Hao, Z.; Martin, M. C.; Kim, P.; Stormer, H. L.; Basov, D. N. (8 June 2008). "Dirac charge dynamics in graphene by infrared spectroscopy". Nature Physics. 4 (7): 532–35. arXiv:0807.3780. doi:10.1038/nphys989. S2CID 5867656.
  4. ^ a b c Zhang, Yuanbo; Tang, Tsung-Ta; Girit, Caglar; Hao, Zhao; Martin, Michael C.; Zettl, Alex; Crommie, Michael F.; Shen, Y. Ron; Wang, Feng (11 June 2009). "Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene". Nature. 459 (7248): 820–23. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..820Z. doi:10.1038/nature08105. OSTI 974550. PMID 19516337. S2CID 205217165.
  5. ^ Koppens, F. H. L.; Mueller, T.; Avouris, Ph.; Ferrari, A. C.; Vitiello, M. S.; Polini, M. (6 October 2014). "Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems". Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (10): 780–93. Bibcode:2014NatNa...9..780K. doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.215. PMID 25286273.
  6. ^ Wang, F.; Zhang, Y.; Tian, C.; Girit, C.; Zettl, A.; Crommie, M.; Shen, Y. R. (11 April 2008). "Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene". Science. 320 (5873): 206–09. Bibcode:2008Sci...320..206W. doi:10.1126/science.1152793. PMID 18339901. S2CID 9321526.
  7. ^ Wang, F.; Zhang, Y.; Tian, C.; Girit, C.; Zettl, A.; Crommie, M.; Shen, Y. R. (11 April 2008). "Gate-Variable Optical Transitions in Graphene". Science. 320 (5873): 206–209. Bibcode:2008Sci...320..206W. doi:10.1126/science.1152793. PMID 18339901. S2CID 9321526.
  8. ^ Hueting, R. J. E.; Rajasekharan, B.; Salm, C.; Schmitz, J. (2008). "The charge plasma p-n diode". IEEE Electron Device Letters. 29 (12): 1367–1369. Bibcode:2008IEDL...29.1367H. doi:10.1109/LED.2008.2006864. S2CID 16320021.
  9. ^ a b c Liu, Chang-Hua; Chang, You-Chia; Norris, Theodore B.; Zhong, Zhaohui (16 March 2014). "Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature". Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (4): 273–78. Bibcode:2014NatNa...9..273L. doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.31. PMID 24633521.
  10. ^ Liu, Chang-Hua; Chang, You-Chia; Norris, Theodore B.; Zhong, Zhaohui (16 March 2014). "Graphene photodetectors with ultra-broadband and high responsivity at room temperature". Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (4): 273–278. Bibcode:2014NatNa...9..273L. doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.31. PMID 24633521.
  11. ^ Lee, C.-C.; Suzuki, S.; Xie, W.; Schibli, T. R. (17 February 2012). "Broadband graphene electro-optic modulators with sub-wavelength thickness". Optics Express. 20 (5): 5264–69. Bibcode:2012OExpr..20.5264L. doi:10.1364/OE.20.005264. PMID 22418332.
  12. ^ Li, Hongbo B. T.; Schropp, Ruud E. I.; Rubinelli, Francisco A. (2010). "Photogating effect as a defect probe in hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon solar cells". Journal of Applied Physics. 108 (1): 014509–. Bibcode:2010JAP...108a4509L. doi:10.1063/1.3437393. hdl:11336/13706. S2CID 54936938.
  13. ^ a b c Kong, Xiang-Tian; Khan, Ammar A.; Kidambi, Piran R.; Deng, Sunan; Yetisen, Ali K.; Dlubak, Bruno; Hiralal, Pritesh; Montelongo, Yunuen; Bowen, James; Xavier, Stéphane; Jiang, Kyle; Amaratunga, Gehan A. J.; Hofmann, Stephan; Wilkinson, Timothy D.; Dai, Qing; Butt, Haider (18 February 2015). "Graphene-Based Ultrathin Flat Lenses" (PDF). ACS Photonics. 2 (2): 200–07. doi:10.1021/ph500197j.
  14. ^ Bae, Sukang; Kim, Hyeongkeun; Lee, Youngbin; Xu, Xiangfan; Park, Jae-Sung; Zheng, Yi; Balakrishnan, Jayakumar; Lei, Tian; Ri Kim, Hye; Song, Young Il; Kim, Young-Jin; Kim, Kwang S.; Özyilmaz, Barbaros; Ahn, Jong-Hyun; Hong, Byung Hee; Iijima, Sumio (20 June 2010). "Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes". Nature Nanotechnology. 5 (8): 574–78. Bibcode:2010NatNa...5..574B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.176.439. doi:10.1038/nnano.2010.132. PMID 20562870. S2CID 7359174.
  15. ^ Geng, Hong-Zhang; Kim, Ki Kang; So, Kang Pyo; Lee, Young Sil; Chang, Youngkyu; Lee, Young Hee (June 2007). "Effect of Acid Treatment on Carbon Nanotube-Based Flexible Transparent Conducting Films". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 129 (25): 7758–59. doi:10.1021/ja0722224. PMID 17536805.
  16. ^ Lee, Jung-Yong; Connor, Stephen T.; Cui, Yi; Peumans, Peter (February 2008). "Solution-Processed Metal Nanowire Mesh Transparent Electrodes". Nano Letters. 8 (2): 689–92. Bibcode:2008NanoL...8..689L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.463.7007. doi:10.1021/nl073296g. PMID 18189445. S2CID 17022574.
  17. ^ Minami, Tadatsugu (1 April 2005). "Transparent conducting oxide semiconductors for transparent electrodes". Semiconductor Science and Technology. 20 (4): S35–S44. Bibcode:2005SeScT..20S..35M. doi:10.1088/0268-1242/20/4/004. S2CID 93242002.
  18. ^ Holland, L.; Siddall, G. (October 1953). "the properties of some reactively sputtered metal oxide films". Vacuum. 3 (4): 375–91. Bibcode:1953Vacuu...3..375H. doi:10.1016/0042-207X(53)90411-4.
  19. ^ Hamberg, I.; Granqvist, C. G. (1986). "Evaporated Sn-doped In2O3 films: Basic optical properties and applications to energy-efficient windows". Journal of Applied Physics. 60 (11): R123. Bibcode:1986JAP....60R.123H. doi:10.1063/1.337534.