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Coordinates: 34°44′51″N 40°43′51″E / 34.747401°N 40.730809°E / 34.747401; 40.730809
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Adding local short description: "Ancient temple in modern-day Syria", overriding Wikidata description "temple at Dura-Europos named by excavators according to association with Gadde/Fortune of the city, but more recently recognized as a temple principally devoted to Malakbel"
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==Description==
==Description==


The city of Palmyra (also known as Tadmor, in Semitic languages) is located about 220 kilometers west of Dura-Europos. The [[oasis]] city flourished due to its participation in caravan trade.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dirven |first=Lucinda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670480460 |title=Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |others=Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, Mass. |chapter=Strangers and Sojourners: the religious behavior of Palmyrenes and other foreigners in Dura Europos |oclc=670480460}}</ref> The presence of Palmyrenes in Dura-Europos is attested from 33 BCE onwards, where they lived as merchants or soldiers hired by the Roman army for their expert archery.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Dirven |first=Lucinda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42296260 |title=The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria |date=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-11589-7 |location=Boston |pages=304 |oclc=42296260}}</ref> Based on surviving text, the Temple of the Gadde was built by and for Palmyrenes living in or visiting Dura-Europos.<ref name=":1" />
The city of Palmyra (also known as Tadmor, in Semitic languages) is located about 220 kilometers west of Dura-Europos. The [[oasis]] city flourished due to its participation in caravan trade.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dirven |first=Lucinda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670480460 |title=Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |others=Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, Mass. |chapter=Strangers and Sojourners: the religious behavior of Palmyrenes and other foreigners in Dura Europos |oclc=670480460}}</ref> The presence of Palmyrenes in Dura-Europos is attested from 33&nbsp;BCE onwards, where they lived as merchants or soldiers hired by the Roman army for their expert archery.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Dirven |first=Lucinda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42296260 |title=The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria |date=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-11589-7 |location=Boston |pages=304 |oclc=42296260}}</ref> Based on surviving text, the Temple of the Gadde was built by and for Palmyrenes living in or visiting Dura-Europos.<ref name=":1" />


The age of the temple complex is unknown. According to the preliminary excavation report, the temple was repeatedly expanded and rebuilt over time. In total, four phases of construction can be discerned. The final phase (IV) is dated to 159 CE, since two relief sculptures have inscriptions dating them to this year. Phase III likely ended around 150 CE. The two earlier phases (II & I) must have fallen in the previous century, but the exact dates are not known. After 159 CE, the temple experienced no further noteworthy additions. Numerous small altars were set up in the temple as well as a platform at the main entrance.<ref name="autogenerated2562">M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: ''The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935.'' Yale University Press, New Haven u. a. 1939, pp. 256–257.</ref>
The age of the temple complex is unknown. According to the preliminary excavation report, the temple was repeatedly expanded and rebuilt over time. In total, four phases of construction can be discerned. The final phase (IV) is dated to 159&nbsp;CE, since two relief sculptures have inscriptions dating them to this year. Phase III likely ended around 150&nbsp;CE. The two earlier phases (II & I) must have fallen in the previous century, but the exact dates are not known. After 159&nbsp;CE, the temple experienced no further noteworthy additions. Numerous small altars were set up in the temple as well as a platform at the main entrance.<ref name="autogenerated2562">M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: ''The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935.'' Yale University Press, New Haven u. a. 1939, pp. 256–257.</ref>


The temple complex takes up much of the eastern section of [[Insula (Roman city)|insula]] H1. It measures about 42 meters north–south and 22 meters east–west. It has two parts, each accessed from the road to the east. The southern part of the temple contains the main courtyard and chief sanctuary. In the north, there is a second courtyard with various adjoining rooms. A [[propylon]] leads into the southern courtyard, on the opposite side of which there is a pronaos and [[cella]] (''[[Cella|Naos]] 3'') with further rooms. The pronaos is 11.05 m wide and 5.1 m deep. The interior room was originally about 8 m high and decorated with wall paintings, which only survive in tiny fragments. The cella is 4.48 m wide and 4.12 m deep. The cella contained three niches on the western side (opposite the entrance). One part of the room was decorated solely with figural wall paintings, but little of the painting survives. To the north of the pronaos was a hall with several rows of benches (known as a ''salle à gradins'').<ref name="autogenerated2562" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baird |first1=Jennifer |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781472522115 |location=New York |page=104}}</ref> Through this hall was the north courtyard, which contained another cella. A [[foundation deposit]] was found beneath the sanctuary, consisting of 21 amulets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baird |first1=Jennifer |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781472522115 |location=New York |page=99}}</ref>
The temple complex takes up much of the eastern section of [[Insula (Roman city)|insula]] H1. It measures about 42 meters north–south and 22 meters east–west. It has two parts, each accessed from the road to the east. The southern part of the temple contains the main courtyard and chief sanctuary. In the north, there is a second courtyard with various adjoining rooms. A [[propylon]] leads into the southern courtyard, on the opposite side of which there is a pronaos and [[cella]] (''[[Cella|Naos]] 3'') with further rooms. The pronaos is 11.05 m wide and 5.1 m deep. The interior room was originally about 8 m high and decorated with wall paintings, which only survive in tiny fragments. The cella is 4.48 m wide and 4.12 m deep. The cella contained three niches on the western side (opposite the entrance). One part of the room was decorated solely with figural wall paintings, but little of the painting survives. To the north of the pronaos was a hall with several rows of benches (known as a ''salle à gradins'').<ref name="autogenerated2562" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baird |first1=Jennifer |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781472522115 |location=New York |page=104}}</ref> Through this hall was the north courtyard, which contained another cella. A [[foundation deposit]] was found beneath the sanctuary, consisting of 21 amulets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baird |first1=Jennifer |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781472522115 |location=New York |page=99}}</ref>
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The relief, measuring 0.57 m x 0.47 m, depicts the female protective deity of Palmyra wearing a Greek [[himation]].<ref name=":3" /> She sits on a rock at the center of the relief, surrounded by other figures. She wears a [[mural crown]], signifying that she is a city goddess.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Ingholt |first=Harald |title=Palmyrene and Gandharan sculpture : an exhibition illustrating the cultural interrelations between the Parthian Empire and its neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, October 14 through November 14, 1954. |publisher=Yale University Art Gallery |year=1954 |location=New Haven}}</ref>
The relief, measuring 0.57 m x 0.47 m, depicts the female protective deity of Palmyra wearing a Greek [[himation]].<ref name=":3" /> She sits on a rock at the center of the relief, surrounded by other figures. She wears a [[mural crown]], signifying that she is a city goddess.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Ingholt |first=Harald |title=Palmyrene and Gandharan sculpture : an exhibition illustrating the cultural interrelations between the Parthian Empire and its neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, October 14 through November 14, 1954. |publisher=Yale University Art Gallery |year=1954 |location=New Haven}}</ref>


There are two inscriptions at the base of the relief. The dedicatory inscription, translated from the [[Palmyrene dialect|Palmyrene language]], reads: "The Gad of Palmyra, made by Hairan bar [son of] Maliku bar [son or descendant of] Nasor." A second inscription gives a date, "in the month of [[Nisan]], year 470 [= March/April 159 CE]."<ref name=":42"/><ref name=":3" /> A black dipinto on the top border of the relief reads "May [Hai]ran, (the son) of Maliku, (the son) of [Nasor], be remembered."<ref name=":42"/>
There are two inscriptions at the base of the relief. The dedicatory inscription, translated from the [[Palmyrene dialect|Palmyrene language]], reads: "The Gad of Palmyra, made by Hairan bar [son of] Maliku bar [son or descendant of] Nasor." A second inscription gives a date, "in the month of [[Nisan]], year 470 [= March/April 159&nbsp;CE]."<ref name=":42"/><ref name=":3" /> A black dipinto on the top border of the relief reads "May [Hai]ran, (the son) of Maliku, (the son) of [Nasor], be remembered."<ref name=":42"/>
[[File:Cult_relief_of_the_Gad_(Fortune)_of_Palmyra,_from_the_Temple_of_the_Gadde_-_YDEA_-_25182.jpg|thumb|335x335px|Palmyrene relief representing the god [[Gad (deity)|("Gad]]") of Palmyra, [[Dura-Europos]], Temple of the Gadde, naos, 159 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670480460 |title=Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |others=Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, Mass. |oclc=670480460}}</ref>]]
[[File:Cult_relief_of_the_Gad_(Fortune)_of_Palmyra,_from_the_Temple_of_the_Gadde_-_YDEA_-_25182.jpg|thumb|335x335px|Palmyrene relief representing the god [[Gad (deity)|("Gad]]") of Palmyra, [[Dura-Europos]], Temple of the Gadde, naos, 159&nbsp;CE<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670480460 |title=Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |others=Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, Mass. |oclc=670480460}}</ref>]]
Hairan, the dedicator of the relief and probably its commissioner, is believed to have been a Palmyrene aristocrat, based on the rarity of his name and the inscriptions marking his lineage.<ref name=":02"/> He stands to the right of the ''Gad'' (the dipinto inscription which names him is on the border above this figure's head).<ref name=":42"/> Hairan is depicted as a Palmyrene priest (signified by his hat, often called a [[Modius (headdress)|modius]], which was common in portraits of other Palmyrene priests).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raja |first=Rubina |title=Beyond priesthood : religious entrepreneurs and innovators in the Roman Empire |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2017 |location=Berlin |chapter=‘You can leave your hat on.’ Priestly representations from Palmyra: Between visual genre, religious importance and social status |pages=417–442 |doi=10.1515/9783110448184-016 |isbn=9783110448184 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110448184-016/pdf}}</ref> He carries an offering to the ''Gad'', likely of oil and incense signified by a flask and a bowl.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Rostovtzeff |first1=M.I. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015066439723&view |title=The Excavations at Dura-Europos : Conducted by Yale University and The French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters : Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work 1933-1934 and 1934-1935 |last2=Brown |first2=F.E. |last3=Welles |first3=C.B. |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1939 |location=New Haven |pages=258–266}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> His feet and ankles are missing due to damage prior to excavation.<ref name=":32" />
Hairan, the dedicator of the relief and probably its commissioner, is believed to have been a Palmyrene aristocrat, based on the rarity of his name and the inscriptions marking his lineage.<ref name=":02"/> He stands to the right of the ''Gad'' (the dipinto inscription which names him is on the border above this figure's head).<ref name=":42"/> Hairan is depicted as a Palmyrene priest (signified by his hat, often called a [[Modius (headdress)|modius]], which was common in portraits of other Palmyrene priests).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raja |first=Rubina |title=Beyond priesthood : religious entrepreneurs and innovators in the Roman Empire |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2017 |location=Berlin |chapter=‘You can leave your hat on.’ Priestly representations from Palmyra: Between visual genre, religious importance and social status |pages=417–442 |doi=10.1515/9783110448184-016 |isbn=9783110448184 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110448184-016/pdf}}</ref> He carries an offering to the ''Gad'', likely of oil and incense signified by a flask and a bowl.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Rostovtzeff |first1=M.I. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015066439723&view |title=The Excavations at Dura-Europos : Conducted by Yale University and The French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters : Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work 1933-1934 and 1934-1935 |last2=Brown |first2=F.E. |last3=Welles |first3=C.B. |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1939 |location=New Haven |pages=258–266}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> His feet and ankles are missing due to damage prior to excavation.<ref name=":32" />


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The female ''Gad'' rests one foot on another woman's shoulder. This nude woman holds her right breast and appears to be rising out of the ground, as if from water, indicating that she represents Palmyra's water source: the Efqa spring.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02"/> This figure is comparable to the river god who supports the feet of the [[Tyche]] of [[Antioch]]. In both cases, the Tyche is depicted as physically supported by the water source of the city. This feature, as well as the ''Gad''<nowiki/>'s clothes, crown, and the rock as her seat, suggest that this relief was modeled in part after [[Eutychides]]' sculpture of the [[Tyche of Antioch]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perkins |first=Ann Louise |title=The Art of Dura-Europos |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1973 |location=Oxford [England] |pages=80–82 |chapter=The sculptures of Dura-Europos}}</ref> The lion figure and mural crown are also depicted in a statue of Atargatis from [[Hierapolis-Mabbug]], indicating [[syncretism]] between Tyche, the ''Gad'' Palmyra, and the goddess Atargatis.<ref name=":02"/>
The female ''Gad'' rests one foot on another woman's shoulder. This nude woman holds her right breast and appears to be rising out of the ground, as if from water, indicating that she represents Palmyra's water source: the Efqa spring.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02"/> This figure is comparable to the river god who supports the feet of the [[Tyche]] of [[Antioch]]. In both cases, the Tyche is depicted as physically supported by the water source of the city. This feature, as well as the ''Gad''<nowiki/>'s clothes, crown, and the rock as her seat, suggest that this relief was modeled in part after [[Eutychides]]' sculpture of the [[Tyche of Antioch]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perkins |first=Ann Louise |title=The Art of Dura-Europos |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1973 |location=Oxford [England] |pages=80–82 |chapter=The sculptures of Dura-Europos}}</ref> The lion figure and mural crown are also depicted in a statue of Atargatis from [[Hierapolis-Mabbug]], indicating [[syncretism]] between Tyche, the ''Gad'' Palmyra, and the goddess Atargatis.<ref name=":02"/>
[[File:Cult_relief_of_the_Gad_(Fortune)_of_Dura,_from_the_Temple_of_the_Gadde.jpg|alt=a relief depicting three figures. In the middle a deity sitting on a throne, to the right, a man (king Seleucus I) standing, and to the left a Palmyrene merchant is standing|left|thumb|332x332px|Relief from the Temple of the Gadde at [[Dura-Europos]] depicting the Gad of Dura (center), King [[Seleucus I Nicator]] (right) and Hairan son of Maliko son of Nasor, a possible relative of [[Odaenathus]] (left).<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropp |first=Andreas J.M. |date=2013 |title=Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100 |series=Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture and Representation |publisher=Oxfoed University Press |isbn=978-0-19-967072-7 |page=225 |url={{GBurl|fsoipziOWpYC|page=225}} }}</ref>]]
[[File:Cult_relief_of_the_Gad_(Fortune)_of_Dura,_from_the_Temple_of_the_Gadde.jpg|alt=a relief depicting three figures. In the middle a deity sitting on a throne, to the right, a man (king Seleucus I) standing, and to the left a Palmyrene merchant is standing|left|thumb|332x332px|Relief from the Temple of the Gadde at [[Dura-Europos]] depicting the Gad of Dura (center), King [[Seleucus I Nicator]] (right) and Hairan son of Maliko son of Nasor, a possible relative of [[Odaenathus]] (left)<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropp |first=Andreas J.M. |date=2013 |title=Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100 |series=Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture and Representation |publisher=Oxfoed University Press |isbn=978-0-19-967072-7 |page=225 |url={{GBurl|fsoipziOWpYC|page=225}} }}</ref>]]


=== Relief of the Gad of Dura ===
=== Relief of the Gad of Dura ===
The accompanying relief found in the Temple of the Gadde measures 0.62 x 0.47 m and depicts the male protective deity of Dura-Europos.<ref name=":3" /> He is bearded and wears a tunic. He very closely resembles [[Zeus Megistos]]. At his right is [[Seleucus Nicator]], as the Palmyrene inscription indicates, and on the left is the dedicator of the relief.<ref>Delbert R. Hillers, Eleonora Cussini: ''Palmyrene Aramaic texts.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996, {{ISBN|0-8018-5278-1}}, p. 172, no. 1095 (Doura 29).</ref> Dura-Europos was founded during the reign of Seleucus (311-280 BC); even several centuries later he was the object of special veneration in the city.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Baird |first=Jennifer A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/982444423 |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-4725-2211-5 |location=London, UK |chapter=The site of Dura-Europos |oclc=982444423}}</ref>
The accompanying relief found in the Temple of the Gadde measures 0.62 x 0.47 m and depicts the male protective deity of Dura-Europos.<ref name=":3" /> He is bearded and wears a tunic. He very closely resembles [[Zeus Megistos]]. At his right is [[Seleucus Nicator]], as the Palmyrene inscription indicates, and on the left is the dedicator of the relief.<ref>Delbert R. Hillers, Eleonora Cussini: ''Palmyrene Aramaic texts.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996, {{ISBN|0-8018-5278-1}}, p. 172, no. 1095 (Doura 29).</ref> Dura-Europos was founded during the reign of Seleucus (311–280 BC); even several centuries later he was the object of special veneration in the city.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Baird |first=Jennifer A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/982444423 |title=Dura-Europos |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-4725-2211-5 |location=London, UK |chapter=The site of Dura-Europos |oclc=982444423}}</ref>


At the Gad's left is a Palmyrene priest (identified by his modius). Much of his body has been lost due to damage prior to excavation.<ref name=":3" />
At the Gad's left is a Palmyrene priest (identified by his modius). Much of his body has been lost due to damage prior to excavation.<ref name=":3" />


The relief is probably the product of a Palmyrene workshop. It was dedicated by the same donor in the same year as the first relief. The dedicatory inscription on the bottom border of the relief states: "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku bar Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 CE]."<ref>M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: ''The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935.'' Yale University Press, New Haven 1939, pp. 277–278.</ref>
The relief is probably the product of a Palmyrene workshop. It was dedicated by the same donor in the same year as the first relief. The dedicatory inscription on the bottom border of the relief states: "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku bar Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159&nbsp;CE]."<ref>M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: ''The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935.'' Yale University Press, New Haven 1939, pp. 277–278.</ref>


According to a carbon study at Yale University, the reliefs to the ''Gadde'' of Palmyra and Dura were both carved from limestone that was sourced from a quarry near Palmyra.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Lisa R. |last2=Snow |first2=Carole E. |date=2019 |title=Quarries at the Crossroads: Sourcing Limestone Sculpture from Dura-Europos and Palmyra at Yale |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26899731 |journal=Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin |pages=78–85 |jstor=26899731 |issn=0084-3539}}</ref> The years inscribed suggest that both reliefs are from 159 CE, which was during the Parthian era or arguably an early period of Roman occupation at Dura.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> Both reliefs have decorative borders with a similar repeating leaf motif, common for Palmyrene craftwork. Both scenes are carved in the [[High-relief|high relief]], frontal style associated with [[Parthian art]], with slight differences between the two in technique for hair and fabric. The pair's similarity of style and matching borders, inscriptions, donor, and date suggest that they were made by different sculptors at the same Palmyrene workshop.<ref name=":52"/> Both figures, the ''Gadde'' of Dura and of Palmyra, are also depicted at the bottom left of a wall painting found in the [[Temple of Bel|Temple of the Palmyrene Gods]].<ref name=":02"/> In this painting, the ''Gad'' Palmyra is again shown wearing a mural crown, seated on a rock, and supported by a figure rising out of a body of water.
According to a carbon study at Yale University, the reliefs to the ''Gadde'' of Palmyra and Dura were both carved from limestone that was sourced from a quarry near Palmyra.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Lisa R. |last2=Snow |first2=Carole E. |date=2019 |title=Quarries at the Crossroads: Sourcing Limestone Sculpture from Dura-Europos and Palmyra at Yale |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26899731 |journal=Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin |pages=78–85 |jstor=26899731 |issn=0084-3539}}</ref> The years inscribed suggest that both reliefs are from 159&nbsp;CE, which was during the Parthian era or arguably an early period of Roman occupation at Dura.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> Both reliefs have decorative borders with a similar repeating leaf motif, common for Palmyrene craftwork. Both scenes are carved in the [[High-relief|high relief]], frontal style associated with [[Parthian art]], with slight differences between the two in technique for hair and fabric. The pair's similarity of style and matching borders, inscriptions, donor, and date suggest that they were made by different sculptors at the same Palmyrene workshop.<ref name=":52"/> Both figures, the ''Gadde'' of Dura and of Palmyra, are also depicted at the bottom left of a wall painting found in the [[Temple of Bel|Temple of the Palmyrene Gods]].<ref name=":02"/> In this painting, the ''Gad'' Palmyra is again shown wearing a mural crown, seated on a rock, and supported by a figure rising out of a body of water.


== References==
== References==

Latest revision as of 07:46, 20 November 2024

The Temple of the Gadde is a temple in the modern-day Syrian city of Dura-Europos, located near the agora (insula H1). It contained reliefs dedicated to the tutelary deities (in Aramaic, Gaddē) of Dura-Europos and the nearby city of Palmyra, after whom the temple was named by its excavators. The temple was excavated between 1934 and January 1936 by the French/American expedition of Yale University, led by Michael Rostovtzeff.[1]

Dura-Europos general excavations plan, Temple of the Gadde is marked as H1

Description

[edit]

The city of Palmyra (also known as Tadmor, in Semitic languages) is located about 220 kilometers west of Dura-Europos. The oasis city flourished due to its participation in caravan trade.[2] The presence of Palmyrenes in Dura-Europos is attested from 33 BCE onwards, where they lived as merchants or soldiers hired by the Roman army for their expert archery.[3] Based on surviving text, the Temple of the Gadde was built by and for Palmyrenes living in or visiting Dura-Europos.[2]

The age of the temple complex is unknown. According to the preliminary excavation report, the temple was repeatedly expanded and rebuilt over time. In total, four phases of construction can be discerned. The final phase (IV) is dated to 159 CE, since two relief sculptures have inscriptions dating them to this year. Phase III likely ended around 150 CE. The two earlier phases (II & I) must have fallen in the previous century, but the exact dates are not known. After 159 CE, the temple experienced no further noteworthy additions. Numerous small altars were set up in the temple as well as a platform at the main entrance.[4]

The temple complex takes up much of the eastern section of insula H1. It measures about 42 meters north–south and 22 meters east–west. It has two parts, each accessed from the road to the east. The southern part of the temple contains the main courtyard and chief sanctuary. In the north, there is a second courtyard with various adjoining rooms. A propylon leads into the southern courtyard, on the opposite side of which there is a pronaos and cella (Naos 3) with further rooms. The pronaos is 11.05 m wide and 5.1 m deep. The interior room was originally about 8 m high and decorated with wall paintings, which only survive in tiny fragments. The cella is 4.48 m wide and 4.12 m deep. The cella contained three niches on the western side (opposite the entrance). One part of the room was decorated solely with figural wall paintings, but little of the painting survives. To the north of the pronaos was a hall with several rows of benches (known as a salle à gradins).[4][5] Through this hall was the north courtyard, which contained another cella. A foundation deposit was found beneath the sanctuary, consisting of 21 amulets.[6]

Relief with figure of Iarhibol

The temple contained a large number of graffiti, in Palmyrene, Greek, and Latin.[7]

Relief sculpture

[edit]

The modern name of the temple derives from two dedicatory reliefs, which were found in fragments, in the main cella (Naos 3). These reliefs were originally located on the side walls of the cella. Fragments of a third, larger relief were also excavated.[8] This relief would have hung on the cella's central wall and depicted the primary god of the sanctuary (probably the sun god Malakbel, judging by a fragment that portrays a griffin-drawn chariot).[9][10]

The cella contained a fourth small relief which depicts the Semitic god Iarhibol. An inscription records "Bnai Mitha, the archers" as its donors.[8][11] A small statue representing Nabû was also found. Its inscription reads, "Nabû. Zabda, the son of Zab[dil]la has made (it)."[12]

Relief of the Gad of Palmyra

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The relief, measuring 0.57 m x 0.47 m, depicts the female protective deity of Palmyra wearing a Greek himation.[8] She sits on a rock at the center of the relief, surrounded by other figures. She wears a mural crown, signifying that she is a city goddess.[13]

There are two inscriptions at the base of the relief. The dedicatory inscription, translated from the Palmyrene language, reads: "The Gad of Palmyra, made by Hairan bar [son of] Maliku bar [son or descendant of] Nasor." A second inscription gives a date, "in the month of Nisan, year 470 [= March/April 159 CE]."[12][8] A black dipinto on the top border of the relief reads "May [Hai]ran, (the son) of Maliku, (the son) of [Nasor], be remembered."[12]

Palmyrene relief representing the god ("Gad") of Palmyra, Dura-Europos, Temple of the Gadde, naos, 159 CE[14]

Hairan, the dedicator of the relief and probably its commissioner, is believed to have been a Palmyrene aristocrat, based on the rarity of his name and the inscriptions marking his lineage.[3] He stands to the right of the Gad (the dipinto inscription which names him is on the border above this figure's head).[12] Hairan is depicted as a Palmyrene priest (signified by his hat, often called a modius, which was common in portraits of other Palmyrene priests).[15] He carries an offering to the Gad, likely of oil and incense signified by a flask and a bowl.[16][13] His feet and ankles are missing due to damage prior to excavation.[16]

The Palmyrene term Gad refers to a figure who embodies luck or good fortune as well as the identity of a city. This explains why the deity in this image is also referred to as Fortuna, the Roman equivalent of this goddess, or Tyche, the Greek.[13][17] It is probable that the female Gad of Palmyra, along with much of her iconography, developed from the Greco-Roman tradition of depicting a city as a goddess.[3] Representations of similar Tyche figures on coins have been found elsewhere in the Parthian empire.[18]

On the Gad's left is a wingless Nike, who crowns the Gad with a laurel wreath using one hand and holds a palm branch with the other.[13] Also on the Gad's left, seated by her side, is a lion with a crescent on its head.[8] There may have been another lion at her right side, lost due to damage, judging by the double griffins of the relief to the Gad of Dura. The lion as well as the upwards-facing crescent appear elsewhere in Palmyrene art, and are associated with other Palmyrene deities.[3] A similar crescent appears in a relief to the god Arsu found at Dura-Europos, and there are multiple representations on Palmyrene coins of the goddess Atargatis riding a lion or seated in between two lions.[19]

The female Gad rests one foot on another woman's shoulder. This nude woman holds her right breast and appears to be rising out of the ground, as if from water, indicating that she represents Palmyra's water source: the Efqa spring.[13][3] This figure is comparable to the river god who supports the feet of the Tyche of Antioch. In both cases, the Tyche is depicted as physically supported by the water source of the city. This feature, as well as the Gad's clothes, crown, and the rock as her seat, suggest that this relief was modeled in part after Eutychides' sculpture of the Tyche of Antioch.[20] The lion figure and mural crown are also depicted in a statue of Atargatis from Hierapolis-Mabbug, indicating syncretism between Tyche, the Gad Palmyra, and the goddess Atargatis.[3]

a relief depicting three figures. In the middle a deity sitting on a throne, to the right, a man (king Seleucus I) standing, and to the left a Palmyrene merchant is standing
Relief from the Temple of the Gadde at Dura-Europos depicting the Gad of Dura (center), King Seleucus I Nicator (right) and Hairan son of Maliko son of Nasor, a possible relative of Odaenathus (left)[21]

Relief of the Gad of Dura

[edit]

The accompanying relief found in the Temple of the Gadde measures 0.62 x 0.47 m and depicts the male protective deity of Dura-Europos.[8] He is bearded and wears a tunic. He very closely resembles Zeus Megistos. At his right is Seleucus Nicator, as the Palmyrene inscription indicates, and on the left is the dedicator of the relief.[22] Dura-Europos was founded during the reign of Seleucus (311–280 BC); even several centuries later he was the object of special veneration in the city.[23]

At the Gad's left is a Palmyrene priest (identified by his modius). Much of his body has been lost due to damage prior to excavation.[8]

The relief is probably the product of a Palmyrene workshop. It was dedicated by the same donor in the same year as the first relief. The dedicatory inscription on the bottom border of the relief states: "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku bar Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 CE]."[24]

According to a carbon study at Yale University, the reliefs to the Gadde of Palmyra and Dura were both carved from limestone that was sourced from a quarry near Palmyra.[25] The years inscribed suggest that both reliefs are from 159 CE, which was during the Parthian era or arguably an early period of Roman occupation at Dura.[13][23] Both reliefs have decorative borders with a similar repeating leaf motif, common for Palmyrene craftwork. Both scenes are carved in the high relief, frontal style associated with Parthian art, with slight differences between the two in technique for hair and fabric. The pair's similarity of style and matching borders, inscriptions, donor, and date suggest that they were made by different sculptors at the same Palmyrene workshop.[9] Both figures, the Gadde of Dura and of Palmyra, are also depicted at the bottom left of a wall painting found in the Temple of the Palmyrene Gods.[3] In this painting, the Gad Palmyra is again shown wearing a mural crown, seated on a rock, and supported by a figure rising out of a body of water.

References

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  1. ^ Rostovtzeff, M.I.; Brown, F.E.; Welles, C.B. (1939). The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  2. ^ a b Dirven, Lucinda (2011). "Strangers and Sojourners: the religious behavior of Palmyrenes and other foreigners in Dura Europos". Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity. Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery. Chestnut Hill, Mass.: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College. ISBN 978-1-892850-16-4. OCLC 670480460.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Boston: Brill. p. 304. ISBN 90-04-11589-7. OCLC 42296260.
  4. ^ a b M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935. Yale University Press, New Haven u. a. 1939, pp. 256–257.
  5. ^ Baird, Jennifer (2018). Dura-Europos. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 104. ISBN 9781472522115.
  6. ^ Baird, Jennifer (2018). Dura-Europos. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 99. ISBN 9781472522115.
  7. ^ Baird, Jennifer (2018). Dura-Europos. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 74. ISBN 9781472522115.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Rostovtzeff, M.I.; Brown, F.E.; Welles, C.B. (1939). The Excavations at Dura-Europos : Conducted by Yale University and The French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters : Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work 1933-1934 and 1934-1935. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 258–266.
  9. ^ a b Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Boston: Brill. pp. 247–248. ISBN 90-04-11589-7. OCLC 42296260.
  10. ^ Baird, Jennifer (2018). Dura-Europos. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 24. ISBN 9781472522115.
  11. ^ M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935. Yale University Press, New Haven 1939, pp. 279–280.
  12. ^ a b c d Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Boston: Brill. pp. 231–235. ISBN 90-04-11589-7. OCLC 42296260.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Ingholt, Harald (1954). Palmyrene and Gandharan sculpture : an exhibition illustrating the cultural interrelations between the Parthian Empire and its neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, October 14 through November 14, 1954. New Haven: Yale University Art Gallery.
  14. ^ Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity. Lisa R. Brody, Gail L. Hoffman, McMullen Museum of Art, Yale University. Art Gallery. Chestnut Hill, Mass.: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College. 2011. ISBN 978-1-892850-16-4. OCLC 670480460.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. ^ Raja, Rubina (2017). "'You can leave your hat on.' Priestly representations from Palmyra: Between visual genre, religious importance and social status". Beyond priesthood : religious entrepreneurs and innovators in the Roman Empire. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 417–442. doi:10.1515/9783110448184-016. ISBN 9783110448184.
  16. ^ a b Rostovtzeff, M.I.; Brown, F.E.; Welles, C.B. (1939). The Excavations at Dura-Europos : Conducted by Yale University and The French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters : Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work 1933-1934 and 1934-1935. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 258–266.
  17. ^ Matheson, Susan B; Pollitt, J. J. (1994). An Obsession with Fortune: Tyche in Greek and Roman Art. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Art Gallery.
  18. ^ Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). The Parthians the forgotten empire. London. ISBN 978-1-000-35848-3. OCLC 1235963358.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ^ Drijvers, H. J. W. (1976). The religion of Palmyra. Leiden: Brill. p. 20. ISBN 0-585-36013-8. OCLC 47010820.
  20. ^ Perkins, Ann Louise (1973). "The sculptures of Dura-Europos". The Art of Dura-Europos. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press. pp. 80–82.
  21. ^ Kropp, Andreas J.M. (2013). Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100. Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture and Representation. Oxfoed University Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-19-967072-7.
  22. ^ Delbert R. Hillers, Eleonora Cussini: Palmyrene Aramaic texts. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996, ISBN 0-8018-5278-1, p. 172, no. 1095 (Doura 29).
  23. ^ a b Baird, Jennifer A. (2018). "The site of Dura-Europos". Dura-Europos. London, UK. ISBN 978-1-4725-2211-5. OCLC 982444423.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  24. ^ M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles: The excavations at Dura-Europos: Preliminary Report of Seventh and Eighth Season of Work 1933–1934 and 1934–1935. Yale University Press, New Haven 1939, pp. 277–278.
  25. ^ Brody, Lisa R.; Snow, Carole E. (2019). "Quarries at the Crossroads: Sourcing Limestone Sculpture from Dura-Europos and Palmyra at Yale". Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin: 78–85. ISSN 0084-3539. JSTOR 26899731.

34°44′51″N 40°43′51″E / 34.747401°N 40.730809°E / 34.747401; 40.730809

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