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Coordinates: 15°20′N 120°10′E / 15.33°N 120.17°E / 15.33; 120.17
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'''Zambales''', officially the '''Province of Zambales''' ({{langx|xsb|Probinsya nin Zambales}}; {{langx|ilo|Probinsia ti Zambales}}; [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]: ''Luyag/Probinsia na Zambales''; {{langx|fil|Lalawigan ng Zambales}}), is a [[Provinces of the Philippines|province]] in the [[Philippines]] located in the [[Central Luzon]] [[Regions of the Philippines|region]]. Its capital is [[Iba, Zambales|Iba]], which is located in the middle of the province. [[Olongapo]] is the largest city of the province wherein it is geographically located but politically independent.
'''Zambales''', officially the '''Province of Zambales''' ({{langx|xsb|Probinsya nin Zambales}}; {{langx|ilo|Probinsia ti Zambales}}; [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]: ''Luyag/Probinsia na Zambales''; {{langx|pam|Lalawigan ning Zambales}}; {{langx|fil|Lalawigan ng Zambales}}), is a [[Provinces of the Philippines|province]] in the [[Philippines]] located in the [[Central Luzon]] [[Regions of the Philippines|region]]. Its capital is [[Iba, Zambales|Iba]], which is located in the middle of the province. [[Olongapo]] is the largest city of the province wherein it is geographically located but politically independent.


Zambales borders [[Pangasinan]] to the north and northeast, [[Tarlac]] to the east, [[Pampanga]] to the southeast, [[Bataan]] to the south and the [[South China Sea]] to the west. With a total land area of {{convert|3830.83|km2}} (including the independent city of [[Olongapo]]), Zambales is the second largest among the seven provinces of Central Luzon after Nueva Ecija. The province is noted for its [[mangoes]], which are abundant from January to April.
Zambales borders [[Pangasinan]] to the north and northeast, [[Tarlac]] to the east, [[Pampanga]] to the southeast, [[Bataan]] to the south and the [[South China Sea]] to the west. With a total land area of {{convert|3830.83|km2}} (including the independent city of [[Olongapo]]), Zambales is the second largest among the seven provinces of Central Luzon after Nueva Ecija. The province is noted for its [[mangoes]], which are abundant from January to April.

Latest revision as of 07:36, 23 November 2024

This article is about the Philippine province. For other uses, see Zambales (disambiguation).

Zambales
Province
(from top: left to right) Zambales coastline, Zambales Provincial Capitol, Subic Bay, Zambales Mountains, and Subic Bay Economic Zone
Flag of Zambales
Flag
Official seal of Zambales
Seal
Nickname: 
Chromite Capital of the Philippines[1]
Anthem: Himno ng Zambales English: Zambales Hymn
Marcha Zambaleño English: March of the Zambaleans
Location within the Philippines
Location within the Philippines
OpenStreetMap
Map
Coordinates: 15°20′N 120°10′E / 15.33°N 120.17°E / 15.33; 120.17
CountryPhilippines
RegionCentral Luzon
Founded1578
CapitalIba
Largest cityOlongapo
Government
 • TypeSangguniang Panlalawigan
 • GovernorHermogenes E. Ebdane, Jr. (PFP)
 • Vice GovernorJacqueline Rose F. Khonghun (Aksyon)
 • LegislatureZambales Provincial Board
Area
[2]
 • Total
3,645.83 km2 (1,407.66 sq mi)
 • Rank35th out of 81
 (excluding Olongapo City)
Highest elevation
(Mount Tapulao)
2,037 m (6,683 ft)
Population
 (2020 census)[3]
 • Total
909,932 (including Olongapo City)
 • Rank46th out of 81
Divisions
 • Independent cities
1
 • Component cities0
 • Municipalities
13
 • Barangays
 • DistrictsLegislative districts of Zambales (shared with Olongapo City)
Demographics
 • Ethnic groups
 • Languages
 • Major religions
 • Ecclesiastical diocesesDiocese of Iba (Roman Catholic)
Diocese of Zambales (Aglipayan Church)
 • Patron saintOur Lady of Poon Bato and Saint Augustine of Hippo
 • Feast dayJanuary 24 and August 28 respectively
Time zoneUTC+8 (PST)
IDD : area code +63 (0)47
ISO 3166 codePH-ZMB
Websitewww.zambales.gov.ph

Zambales, officially the Province of Zambales (Sambal: Probinsya nin Zambales; Ilocano: Probinsia ti Zambales; Pangasinan: Luyag/Probinsia na Zambales; Kapampangan: Lalawigan ning Zambales; Filipino: Lalawigan ng Zambales), is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is Iba, which is located in the middle of the province. Olongapo is the largest city of the province wherein it is geographically located but politically independent.

Zambales borders Pangasinan to the north and northeast, Tarlac to the east, Pampanga to the southeast, Bataan to the south and the South China Sea to the west. With a total land area of 3,830.83 square kilometres (1,479.09 sq mi) (including the independent city of Olongapo), Zambales is the second largest among the seven provinces of Central Luzon after Nueva Ecija. The province is noted for its mangoes, which are abundant from January to April.

Zambales does not have a functional airport; the closest functional airport is Clark International Airport in Angeles City in the neighbouring province of Pampanga. Subic Bay International Airport, which is located in Cubi Point (geographically and politically located inside Morong, Bataan) in the Subic Bay Freeport Zone is no longer functional for domestic and international flights.[4]

The Freeport Zone (SBFZ) is host to many tourist attractions which include casinos, parks, malls, beach-side huts, cottages and resorts, as well as historical sites.

Etymology

[edit]

The name of the province is derived from "Zambales", the Hispanized name of the Sambal people. The Sambal were the original dominant ethnic group of the region.[5]

History

[edit]
Zambales map in 1918

Spanish colonial era

[edit]

The Spanish first explored the area in 1572, led by Juan de Salcedo.[6] Off Cape Bolinao (now part of Pangasinan), he and his men liberated a Zambal chieftain and his followers from a Chinese pirate ship. This act gained the natives' goodwill. Shortly thereafter, the province was organized. Among the earliest towns founded were Subic (1572), Botolan (1572), Masinloc (1607), Iba (1611), and Santa Cruz (1612).[7] Zambales was originally derived from 2 parts: the southern area from Pampanga and the northern area from Pangasinan.

During the Spanish period, a 1774 map was made, which clearly named Scarborough Shoals as Panacot Shoal, a feature under complete sovereignty of Spanish Philippines, specifically of Zambales. The shoal's current name was chosen by Captain Philip D'Auvergne, whose East India Company East Indiaman Scarborough briefly grounded on one of the rocks on September 12, 1784, before sailing on to China. When the Philippines was granted independence in the 19th century and 20th century, Scarborough Shoal was passed by the colonial governments to the sovereign Republic of the Philippines.[8][9] By the end of the 1700s, Zambales had 1,136 native families and 73 Spanish Filipino families.[10]: 539 [11]: 31, 54, 113 

American invasion era

[edit]

Masinloc became the province's first capital. However, the capital was moved among the last three towns above during its history before finally settling in Iba, due to its strategic location. Seven of the province's original northern towns, which included Bolinao, Infanta, San Isidro, now Burgos, Anda, Bani, Agno and Alaminos were later transferred under the jurisdiction of Pangasinan because of their distance from the capital.[6] The first civil governor of Zambales during the colonial American era was Potenciano Lesaca from 1901 to 1903.

Postwar Era

[edit]

Under a 1947 Military Bases Agreement,[12] the Philippines granted the United States a 99-year lease on several U.S. bases, including U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay.[13] A later amendment in 1966 reduced the original 99-year term of the agreement to 25 years.[14] A renewal of the agreement in 1979[15] allowed the U.S. to continue operating the bases until November 1991,[16] when the Philippine Senate rejected a bill for the renewal of U.S. bases in the Philippines.[14]

During the Marcos dictatorship

[edit]
Main articles: Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos and Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship

The beginning months of the 1970s marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines, as well as in Zambales.[17][18] During his bid to be the first Philippine president to be re-elected for a second term, Ferdinand Marcos launched an unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects. This caused[19][20] the Philippine economy took a sudden downwards turn known as the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis, which in turn led to a period of economic difficulty and a significant rise of social unrest.[21][22] : "43" [23][24]

With only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the position for fourteen more years.[25] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses,[26][27] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship.[28] During the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos, Zambales was one of the most militarized areas.[29][30]

In Olongapo, the continuation of the Vietnam war through this period meant the arrival of a constantly growing number of U.S. Sailors to Subic Naval Base, and along with it, the rapid growth of prostitution.[31] The policies of the Marcos administration encouraged the growth of the sex-industry[32]: 128  because it increased the flow of higher value currency into the Philippine economy.[33]: 13  The economy of this part of Zambales evolved from a largely agricultural orientation at the end of the 1960s towards one built around sex industry related businesses such as bars by the mid-1970s.[32][33]

In 1986, the province was one of the main supporters of the People Power Revolution in Manila, which topped the 21-year dictatorship and installed Corazon Aquino as president, bringing back democracy to the country.[34]

Later 20th Century

[edit]

The province was heavily affected by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Due to this, the economy of the province weakened for some time, but regained vitality a few years after the government ordered the revitalization of the province and established growth in its southern towns, which later became a significant economic zone in the country by 1995.[35][36]

Contemporary

[edit]

The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff led to a situation where access to the shoal was restricted by the People's Republic of China.[37] However, in 2016, following meetings between the Philippine president Duterte and his PRC counterparts, the PRC allowed Filipino fishermen to access the shoals for fishing.[38]

In 2018, it was revealed that for every 3,000 peso worth of fish catch by Sambal fisherfolks, China siphoned them in exchange for 'two bottles of mineral water' worth 20 pesos.[39] The revelations led to public unrest against China and the Duterte-administered Philippine government. Filipino president Rodrigo Duterte fired back against his fellow Filipinos, including those from Zambales, saying that China's acts were 'fine' as they were 'only barter'.[40][41][42] On June 14, 2018, China's destruction of Scarborough Shoal's reefs surged to an extent which they became visible via Google Earth and Philippine satellites, as confirmed by the University of the Philippines Diliman.[43]

Geography

[edit]
Western coastline of the province featuring several coves
The Zambales Mountains seen from San Antonio

Zambales lies on the western shores of Luzon island along the South China Sea. Its shoreline is rugged and features many coves and inlets. The Zambales Mountains in the eastern length of the province occupies about 60% of the total land area of Zambales. Subic Bay, at the southern end of the province, provides a natural harbor, and was the location of the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay until its closure in 1992.[6]

The summit and crater lake of Mount Pinatubo lies within Botolan municipality in Zambales, near the tripoint of Zambales, Pampanga and Tarlac provinces.[44] This volcano, once considered dormant, erupted violently in June 1991. The former summit of the volcano was obliterated by the massive eruption and replaced by a 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide caldera, within which Lake Pinatubo is situated. With an average depth of 800 m (2,600 ft), Lake Pinatubo is the deepest lake in the Philippines. The highest point of the caldera rim is 1,485 m (4,872 ft) above sea level, some 260 m (850 ft) lower than the pre-eruption summit. A vast portion of the Zambales province acquired desert-like features in 1991,[6] after being buried by more than 20 feet (6.1 m) of lahar.

Climate

[edit]

Zambales has two pronounced seasons: dry from October to June, and wet from July to September.

Administrative divisions

[edit]

Zambales comprises 13 municipalities and one highly urbanized city, which are divided into two legislative districts.[45] Olongapo City is a highly urbanized city and administers itself autonomously from the province. Panatag Shoal (Scarborough Shoal) a Philippine-claimed territory, is a designated part of the province.

The northern half of the province typically comprises the municipalities of Santa Cruz, Candelaria, Masinloc, and Palauig. The central half of the province consists of the municipalities of Iba (the capital), Botolan, Cabangan, and San Felipe. The southern half of the province is composed of the municipalities of San Narciso, San Marcelino, San Antonio, Castillejos, Subic, and the highly urbanized city of Olongapo.

Barangays

[edit]
Further information: List of barangays in Zambales

The 13 municipalities and 1 city of the province comprise 247 barangays, with Santa Rita in Olongapo City as the most populous in 2010, and Owaog-Nibloc in Botolan as the least. If cities are excluded, Calapacuan in Subic has the highest population as of 2010.[47]

Demographics

[edit]
Population census of Zambales
YearPop.±% p.a.
1903 59,930—    
1918 83,750+2.26%
1939 106,945+1.17%
1948 138,536+2.92%
1960 213,442+3.67%
YearPop.±% p.a.
1970 235,249+0.98%
1975 269,171+2.74%
1980 287,607+1.33%
1990 369,665+2.54%
1995 389,512+0.98%
YearPop.±% p.a.
2000 433,542+2.32%
2007 493,085+1.79%
2010 534,443+2.97%
2015 590,848+1.93%
2020 649,615+1.88%
(excluding Olongapo City)
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority[46][47][47]

The population of Zambales in the 2020 census was 649,615 people,[3] with a density of 180 inhabitants per square kilometre or 470 inhabitants per square mile. When Olongapo City is included for geographical purposes, the province's population is 909,932 people, with a density of 215/km2 (557/sq mi).

Inhabitants

[edit]
See also: Aeta, Sambal people, Tagalog people, Ilocano people, Kapampangan people, and Pangasinan people

The Aetas of Mount Pinatubo were the earliest inhabitants of what is now the province of Zambales.[6] They were later displaced[6] by the Sambal, an Austronesian people after whom the province is named. Many Sambal still believe in superstitions and mysteries that have been handed down through the generations.

The Tagalogs, the Ilocanos, the Sambal, the Kapampangans, and the Pangasinans today constitute the five largest ethnic groups in Zambales; these identities may and do, however, overlap with one another due to intermarriage[48] and other factors. The less-populated valley of the province was settled by settlers from the Ilocos and the Tagalog regions, leading to the assimilation of Sambals to Ilocano & Tagalog settlers & modern decline in the Sambal cultural identity and language.[5][49][50][51][52] Most of the people of southern Zambales are migrants from different parts of the country, owing the influx of job opportunities brought on by the U.S Subic Naval Base (San Antonio and Subic) during the American regime of the country. Many people found jobs and permanently settled there. The presence of the Americans greatly influenced the culture and way of life of the inhabitants.

Religion

[edit]
Our Lady of Poon Bato Patroness of the Province of Zambales

The people of Zambales are predominantly Roman Catholic (78.22%) under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Iba. A sizeable portion of the population also belongs to the Aglipayan Church (6.12%) under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Zambales and Iglesia ni Cristo (6%) the province has subdivided into 2 Ecclesiastical Districts of the Church has numerous locales dominates in cities and municipalities even in remote barrios . The remaining are divided with other Christian groups such as Born-again Christians, United Methodist Church, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist, United Church of Christ in the Philippines as well as Non Christians which is usually represented by Muslims.

Town fiestas honoring patron saints are practiced in each parish.

Further information: Roman Catholic Diocese of Iba

Languages

[edit]
Languages Spoken (2000)[53]
Language Number of speakers
Tagalog
 
 164,000
Ilocano
 
 119,000
Sambal
 
 117,000
Main articles: Sambalic languages, Tagalog language, Ilocano language, Kapampangan language, and Pangasinan language

Sambal, Tagalog, and Ilocano are the three main languages of Zambales.[6] Ilocano has 115,337 native speakers, Sambal has 114,637, and Tagalog has 250,637 (plus 24,995 non-native speakers).[54] Sambal residents in Iba have switched their language from Sambal to Ilocano & Tagalog, while Castillejos has shifted from Ilocano to Tagalog, and Cabangan from Ilocano and Sambal to Tagalog.[49] Sambal & Sambalic languages as a whole are most closely related to Kapampangan. More than 119,126 spoke other languages as their parent tongue, such as Kapampangan and Pangasinan (also spoken by Sambals on the Zambales-Pangasinan boundary), including non-Philippine languages such as English and Hokkien Chinese.[54] Other Sambalic languages spoken in Zambales are Botolan, Ambala, and Mag-antsi. About 75 percent of the population speaks and understands English to varying degrees of fluency, and road signs are mostly written in that language.

Economy

[edit]

Poverty incidence of Zambales

5
10
15
20
25
30
2006
23.64
2009
17.28
2012
16.00
2015
16.82
2018
15.21
2021
17.70

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority[55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62]

Tourism plays a large role in the economy of Zambales. Local and foreign tourist flock its many beaches creating many job opportunities and contributing to the economy. Most of the province is still agricultural but there are considerable industrial zones that provide jobs not just for residents of Zambales but also for neighboring provinces. Mining has recently been booming in Zambales where there is an abundant deposit of Nickel and other minerals.[6]

Mangoes from Zambales

Zambales is basically an agricultural province. The chief products are rice, mangoes, corn, vegetables, and root crops. Major industries include farming, fishing, and mining.

Festivals and events

[edit]

  • Feast Day of Ina Poon Bato (Botolan) — January 24. The Ina Poón Bató is a purportedly miraculous, syncretised image of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Legend has it that before the arrival of the Spanish in the area sometime in the 17th century, local Aeta peoples had discovered a carved wooden statue on a large rock that they called Apo Apang ("Little Queen") and began worshipping the image. On the arrival of Recollect missionaries in 1607, the natives associated the statue with the Roman Catholic depictions of the Virgin Mary, and the image was subsequently Christianised as Ina Poón Bato ("Mother of the Lord Rock").
  • Singkamas Festival and Town Fiesta (San Marcelino) — 3rd Week of February
  • Town Fiesta (San Narciso) — February 19–25
  • Pundakit Festival of the Arts (San Antonio) — February‑July
  • Zambales Multi Sports Festival Senakulo — 3rd Week of March
  • Panagkakadua-an Festival (San Felipe) - 1st Week of April
  • Good Friday (Castillejos) — April
  • Foundation Day Celebration (Palauig) — April 10
  • Grand Fiesta (Cabangan) — April 21–25
  • The Dinamulag Festival "Zambales Mango Festival" (Iba) — 3rd Tuesday of April The Dinamulag Festival also known as the Zambales Mango Festival is an annual festival held in the province of Zambales in the Philippines to celebrate or encourage bountiful harvest of the province's mangoes. The festival was first held in 1999.
  • Paynawen Festival (Iba) — 3rd Week of April Paynauen ‘Duyan’ Festival is held every April 25 – May 1 in Iba, Zambales. It commemorates the provincial capital's founding anniversary (founded in 1611) traces its origin from a Zambal word which means rest or pahingahan – the ancient name of Iba before the Spanish conquistadores founded the village on the shore of the Bancal River in 1611. The festival features photo competition and exhibit, sand sculpture competition, skate boarding, 2-cock derby, carabao race, beauty pageant, kite flying, banca race, boxing tournament, street dancing / Duyan Parade, among other activities.
  • Marunggay Festival and Town Fiesta (San Antonio) — Last Week of April
  • Domorokdok Festival (Botolan) — May 4
  • Laruk Laruk Festival (Candelaria) — Last Week of October
  • Binabayani Festival and Town Fiesta (Masinloc) — November 30 The Binabayani Festival occurs every November in the city of Masinloc in Zambales. . A dance/play depicting the clash between the Spanish and the Natives of Masinloc or the triumph of Christianity over Paganism. The war dance starts with a procession in the afternoon of November 29 and opens in a mass on November 30. This annual religious festival is celebrated with day long activities in honor of San Andres, the patron saint of Masinloc. Binabayani is a war dance that portrays the battle between the Christian and the Aetas in the town of Masinloc. It is a word that means “bravery”. It is usually featured at the town plaza on the 30th day of November for the public to witness.
  • Kaligawan Ha Mayanan (Candelaria) — December 29–30
  • Olongapo Mardigras (Olongapo) — Last Week of October

Education

[edit]

There are a number of higher educational institutions in the province. The President Ramon Magsaysay State University (PRMSU), the first state university in the province can be found in Iba. It has also satellite campuses in the municipalities of Santa Cruz, Candelaria, Masinloc, Botolan, San Marcelino, and Castillejos. St. Joseph College-Olongapo, a college run by the Roman Catholic Church can be found in Olongapo City. The Columban College, run by the Catholic Church can be found also in Olongapo. The Magsaysay Memorial College is also run by the Roman Catholic Church and can be found in San Narciso.

Colleges and universities

[edit]

President Ramon Magsaysay State University (PRMSU)
The President Ramon Magsaysay State University, commonly referred to as PRMSU, is a state university/government-funded higher education institution in Iba, established in 1910. The university is named after former President Ramon Magsaysay, a native of the province. Its main campus is situated in the capital town of Iba, while satellite campuses are located in Santa Cruz, Candelaria, Masinloc, Botolan, San Marcelino, and Castillejos. The university also offers nursing courses at the Mondriaan Aura College in Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Business Administration at the Wesleyan College of Manila under a consortium program.
Columban College, Olongapo
The Columban College, is a private-catholic educational institution in Zambales that was established in 1961. the college was founded by the missionaries from Ireland under the Missionary Society of St. Columban until they turn over the institution to the Diocese of Iba. the institution's main campus is situated at the heart of Olongapo City, other campuses situated at Bo. Barretto, Olongapo which focuses on the southern part of Zambales, and Santa Cruz, Zambales which focuses on the northern part of Zambales. they value Christian Character like any other Catholic Schools as a Christ-centered but competing institution. they offer academic programs within their reach.

Notable people

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Mining Firms Seek to Export Black Sand Thru Subic Port". Dean Alegado Reality. PIA Press Release. March 14, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2016. The miners told Salonga that Zambales was known before as the chromite capital of the Philippines, but with big developments in China today, magnetite iron ore has become more important than chromite.
  2. ^ "List of Provinces". PSGC Interactive. Makati, Philippines: National Statistical Coordination Board. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
  3. ^ a b c Census of Population (2020). "Region III (Central Luzon)". Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay. Philippine Statistics Authority. Retrieved July 8, 2021.
  4. ^ Orejas, Tonnette (March 7, 2012). "It's more fun than an airport in Subic". Inquirer. Retrieved May 15, 2014.
  5. ^ a b Reed, William Allan (1904). Negritos of Zambales. Bureau of Public Printing, U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 24–29.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Lancion, Conrado M. Jr.; de Guzman, Rey (cartography) (1995). "The Provinces". Fast Facts about Philippine Provinces (The 2000 Millenium ed.). Makati, Metro Manila: Tahanan Books. pp. 162–163. ISBN 971-630-037-9. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
  7. ^ "Municipalities"[usurped]. Zambales Now, Official Website of Zambales. Retrieved on 2012-05.24.
    ** The year of 1542 in the founding of Subic is a misprint and should be the year 1572 like in Botolan as Salcedo was born in 1549.
  8. ^ W. Gilbert (1804) A New Nautical Directory for the East-India and China Navigation .., pp.480=482.
  9. ^ Joseph Huddart (1801). The Oriental Navigator, Or, New Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies: Also for the Use of Ships Trading in the Indian and China Seas to New Holland, &c. &c. James Humphreys. p. 454.
  10. ^ ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)
  11. ^ ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)
  12. ^ "Agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines Concerning Military Bases" (PDF). United States Library of Congress. March 14, 1947. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 12, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2017.
  13. ^ "Philippines : The Early Republic". britannica.com. Archived from the original on December 16, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2017.
  14. ^ a b "PHILIPPINE SENATE VOTES TO REJECT U.S. BASE RENEWAL". The New York Times. September 16, 1991. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
  15. ^ Rodriguez, Dylan (2010). Suspended Apocalypse: White Supremacy, Genocide, and the Filipino Condition. U of Minnesota Press. p. 892. ISBN 978-0-8166-5349-2. Archived from the original on April 19, 2020. Retrieved December 17, 2017.
  16. ^ Drogin, Bob (November 27, 1991). "After 89 Years, U.S. Lowers Flag at Clark Air Base". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 25, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2011.
  17. ^ Robles, Raissa (2016). Marcos Martial Law: Never Again. Filipinos for a Better Philippines, Inc.
  18. ^ "A History of the Philippine Political Protest". www.officialgazette.gov.ph. Retrieved August 16, 2024.
  19. ^ Balbosa, Joven Zamoras (1992). "IMF Stabilization Program and Economic Growth: The Case of the Philippines" (PDF). Journal of Philippine Development. XIX (35). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2022.
  20. ^ Balisacan, A. M.; Hill, Hal (2003). The Philippine Economy: Development, Policies, and Challenges. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195158984.
  21. ^ Cororaton, Cesar B. "Exchange Rate Movements in the Philippines". DPIDS Discussion Paper Series 97-05: 3, 19.
  22. ^ Kessler, Richard J. (1989). Rebellion and repression in the Philippines. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300044062. OCLC 19266663.
  23. ^ Celoza, Albert F. (1997). Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275941376.
  24. ^ Schirmer, Daniel B. (1987). The Philippines reader : a history of colonialism, neocolonialism, dictatorship, and resistance (1st ed.). Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0896082768. OCLC 14214735.
  25. ^ Magno, Alexander R., ed. (1998). "Democracy at the Crossroads". Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9:A Nation Reborn. Hong Kong: Asia Publishing Company Limited.
  26. ^ "Alfred McCoy, Dark Legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime". Ateneo de Manila University. September 20, 1999.
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