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To Do List

Edit/fully rewrite roller mill - should we remove and incorporate into gristmill? https://civileats.com/2024/11/20/the-craft-milling-movement-gears-up/ https://civileats.com/2020/08/28/op-ed-will-the-real-whole-grain-please-stand-up/

rework parts of Zoning in the United States incorporate Nectow v. City of Cambridge and Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas add parts of Agricultural zoning rather than just having it at the end as an addition. find better sources

make new section called supreme court decisions? or redo the legal section to make it court cases or smth and remove euclid from history i think.

Exhaustion of remedies isn't good

20th century

Global Overview

The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories^[1] but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people. Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to electrify first, and the United States’ hydroelectric plants in Niagara Falls and the Sierra Nevada inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe.^[2] American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the Cold War, contributing to projects such as the Three Gorges Dam and the Aswan High Dam.^[3] Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers,^[4] which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones.^[5] Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered. They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional salmon passages.^[6] The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and pathogens, leading to local epidemics.^[7] However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations.^[8]

Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century. While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more independent energy producers.^[4] Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.^[9] In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams.^[10] Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites.^[11] In the 1990s, only 18% of the world’s electricity came from hydropower.^[12] Tidal power production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.^[13]

United States

Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of ‘wasted potential’ rather than to power a population that needed the electricity. When the Niagara Falls Power Company began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation. The project succeeded in large part due to Nikola Tesla’s invention of the alternating current motor.^[14]^[15] On the other side of the country, San Francisco engineers, the Sierra Club, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913. After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to PG&E which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.^[16]^[17]^[18]

The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the Columbia River and its tributaries. The Bureau of Reclamation built the Hoover Dam in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the New Deal.^[19] The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the Shasta Dam and Grand Coulee Dam. Power demand in Oregon did not justify damming the Columbia until WWI revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy. The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it.^[20] Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during WWII.^[21] After the war, the Grand Coulee Dam and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural Columbia Basin, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations. In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a nuclear site placed on the banks of the Columbia. The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.^[22]

Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the Tennessee Valley Authority, refocused from simply building domestic dams to promoting hydropower abroad.^[23]^[24] While domestic dam building continued well into the 1970s, with the Reclamation Bureau and Army Corps of Engineers building more than 150 new dams across the American West,^[23] organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns. Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in Dinosaur National Monument and the Grand Canyon, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation. As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance.^[25]

Africa

Foreign powers and IGOs have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the World Bank with the Kariba and Akosombo Dams, and the Soviet Union with the Aswan Dam.^[26] The Nile River especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force. After the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam,^[27] which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods. Egyptian engineer Adriano Daninos developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority’s multipurpose dam.

When Gamal Abdel Nasser took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project.^[28] After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring Sudan combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam.^[29] Between 1977 and 1990 the dam’s turbines generated one third of Egypt’s electricity.^[30] The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them. Ethiopia, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s.^[31] While progress stalled due to the coup d'état of 1974 and following 17-year-long Ethiopian Civil War Ethiopia began construction on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011.^[32]

Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa. The Inga powerplant on the Congo River had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence. Mobutu’s government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the Southern African Power Pool created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program.^[33] States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ghana, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries.^[34] Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa,^[35] and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like Mozambique and Ghana.^[34]

Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa. In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s. While interest faded as national grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification. ^[36]

Europe

In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of Norway and Sweden high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.^[37]

Early on, Switzerland dammed the Alpine rivers and the Swiss Rhine, creating, along with Italy and Scandinavia, a Southern Europe hydropower race.^[38] In Italy’s Po Valley, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign.^[39] These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI.^[40]^[39]

Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s.^[41] The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar Urft, Mohne, and Eder dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation.^[42] However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south. Bavaria even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the Walchensee in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.^[43] Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern ‘coal barons’, although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower.^[44] Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower.^[45] However, conflict accompanied the dam building and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.^[46]

^ Montrie, C., Water Power, Industrial Manufacturing, and Environmental Transformation in 19th-Century New England, retrieved 7 May 2022
^ Blackbourn, D. (2006). The conquest of nature: water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany. Norton. p. 217-18. ISBN 978-0-393-06212-0.
^ McCully, P. (2001). Silenced rivers: the ecology and politics of large dams. Zed Books. p. 18-19. ISBN 978-1-85649-901-9.
^ ^a ^b McCully 2001, p. 227.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 222–24.
^ DamNation, Patagonia Films, Felt Soul Media, Stoecker Ecological, 2014
^ McCully 2001, p. 93.
^ Frey, F. (7 August 2020). "A Fluid Iron Curtain". Scandinavian Journal of History. 45 (4). Routledge: 506–526. doi:10.1080/03468755.2019.1629336. ISSN 0346-8755.
^ D’Souza, R. (7 July 2008). "Framing India's Hydraulic Crisis: The Politics of the Modern Large Dam". Monthly Review: 112–124. doi:10.14452/MR-060-03-2008-07_7. ISSN 0027-0520.
^ Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41.
^ McCully 2001, p. 274.
^ McCully 2001, p. 134.
^ Charlier, R. H. (1 December 2007). "Forty candles for the Rance River TPP tides provide renewable and sustainable power generation". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 11 (9): 2032–2057. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.015. ISSN 1364-0321.
^ Berton, P. (2009). Niagara: A History of the Falls. State University of New York Press. p. 203-9. ISBN 978-1-4384-2930-4.
^ Berton 2009, p. 216.
^ Sinclair, B. (2006). "The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism (review)". Technology and Culture. 47 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 444–445. doi:10.1353/tech.2006.0153. ISSN 1097-3729.
^ Hetch Hetchy, 2020, retrieved 8 May 2022
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 218.
^ Lee, G., The Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022
^ White, R. (1995). The Organic Machine. Hill and Wang. p. 48-58. ISBN 978-0-8090-3559-5.
^ McCully 2001, p. 16.
^ White 1995, p. 71-72, 85, 89-111.
^ ^a ^b Lee, G., The Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022
^ Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt". The Arab Studies Journal. 17 (1). [Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Arab Studies Journal, Arab Studies Institute]: 9–31. ISSN 1083-4753.
^ Lee, G., The End of the Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022
^ Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41. ISSN 1555-2462 0002-0206, 1555-2462. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)
^ Ross, C. (2017). Ecology and power in the age of empire: Europe and the transformation of the tropical world. Oxford University Press. p. 37-38. ISBN 978-0-19-182990-1.
^ Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt". The Arab Studies Journal. 17 (1). [Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Arab Studies Journal, Arab Studies Institute]: 9–31. ISSN 1083-4753.
^ Dougherty, J. E. (1959). "The Aswan Decision in Perspective". Political Science Quarterly. 74 (1). [Academy of Political Science, Wiley]: 21–45. doi:10.2307/2145939. ISSN 0032-3195.
^ McNeill, J. R. (2000). Something new under the sun: an environmental history of the twentieth-century world. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 169-170. ISBN 978-0-393-32183-8.
^ Swain, A. (1997). "Ethiopia, the Sudan, and Egypt: The Nile River Dispute". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 35 (4). Cambridge University Press: 675–694. ISSN 0022-278X.
^ Gebreluel, G. (3 April 2014). "Ethiopia's Grand Renaissance Dam: Ending Africa's Oldest Geopolitical Rivalry?". The Washington Quarterly. 37 (2). Routledge: 25–37. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2014.926207. ISSN 0163-660X.
^ Gottschalk, K. (3 May 2016). "Hydro-politics and hydro-power: the century-long saga of the Inga project". Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines. 50 (2). Routledge: 279–294. doi:10.1080/00083968.2016.1222297. ISSN 0008-3968.
^ ^a ^b Adovor Tsikudo, K. (2 January 2021). "Ghana's Bui Hydropower Dam and Linkage Creation Challenges". Forum for Development Studies. 48 (1). Routledge: 153–174. doi:10.1080/08039410.2020.1858953. ISSN 0803-9410.
^ Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41.
^ Klunne, Q. J. (1 August 2013). "Small hydropower in Southern Africa – an overview of five countries in the region". Journal of Energy in Southern Africa. 24 (3): 14–25. doi:10.17159/2413-3051/2013/v24i3a3138. ISSN 2413-3051.
^ Rodríguez, I. B. (30 December 2011). "¿Fue el sector eléctrico un gran beneficiario de «la política hidráulica» anterior a la Guerra Civil? (1911-1936)". Hispania. 71 (239): 789–818. doi:10.3989/hispania.2011.v71.i239.360. ISSN 1988-8368.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 217.
^ ^a ^b Parrinello, G. (2018). "Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970". Technology and Culture. 59 (3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 652–688. doi:10.1353/tech.2018.0062. ISSN 1097-3729.
^ McNeill 2000, p. 174-175.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 198-207.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 212-213.
^ Landry, M. (2015). "Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps". Environmental History. 20 (3). [Oxford University Press, Forest History Society, American Society for Environmental History]: 422–448. ISSN 1084-5453.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 219.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 327.
^ Blackbourn 2006, p. 222-236.

[1] Montrie, C., Water Power, Industrial Manufacturing, and Environmental Transformation in 19th-Century New England, retrieved 7 May 2022

[2] Blackbourn, D. (2006). The conquest of nature: water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany. Norton. p. 217-18. ISBN 978-0-393-06212-0.

[3] McCully, P. (2001). Silenced rivers: the ecology and politics of large dams. Zed Books. p. 18-19. ISBN 978-1-85649-901-9.

[FOOTNOTEMcCully2001227-4] McCully 2001, p. 227.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222–24-5] Blackbourn 2006, p. 222–24.

[6] DamNation, Patagonia Films, Felt Soul Media, Stoecker Ecological, 2014

[FOOTNOTEMcCully200193-7] McCully 2001, p. 93.

[8] Frey, F. (7 August 2020). "A Fluid Iron Curtain". Scandinavian Journal of History. 45 (4). Routledge: 506–526. doi:10.1080/03468755.2019.1629336. ISSN 0346-8755.

[9] D’Souza, R. (7 July 2008). "Framing India's Hydraulic Crisis: The Politics of the Modern Large Dam". Monthly Review: 112–124. doi:10.14452/MR-060-03-2008-07_7. ISSN 0027-0520.

[10] Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41.

[FOOTNOTEMcCully2001274-11] McCully 2001, p. 274.

[FOOTNOTEMcCully2001134-12] McCully 2001, p. 134.

[13] Charlier, R. H. (1 December 2007). "Forty candles for the Rance River TPP tides provide renewable and sustainable power generation". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 11 (9): 2032–2057. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.015. ISSN 1364-0321.

[14] Berton, P. (2009). Niagara: A History of the Falls. State University of New York Press. p. 203-9. ISBN 978-1-4384-2930-4.

[FOOTNOTEBerton2009216-15] Berton 2009, p. 216.

[16] Sinclair, B. (2006). "The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism (review)". Technology and Culture. 47 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 444–445. doi:10.1353/tech.2006.0153. ISSN 1097-3729.

[17] Hetch Hetchy, 2020, retrieved 8 May 2022

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006218-18] Blackbourn 2006, p. 218.

[19] Lee, G., The Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022

[20] White, R. (1995). The Organic Machine. Hill and Wang. p. 48-58. ISBN 978-0-8090-3559-5.

[FOOTNOTEMcCully200116-21] McCully 2001, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEWhite199571-72,_85,_89-111-22] White 1995, p. 71-72, 85, 89-111.

[Big_Dam_Era-23] Lee, G., The Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022

[24] Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt". The Arab Studies Journal. 17 (1). [Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Arab Studies Journal, Arab Studies Institute]: 9–31. ISSN 1083-4753.

[25] Lee, G., The End of the Big Dam Era, retrieved 8 May 2022

[26] Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41. ISSN 1555-2462 0002-0206, 1555-2462. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)

[27] Ross, C. (2017). Ecology and power in the age of empire: Europe and the transformation of the tropical world. Oxford University Press. p. 37-38. ISBN 978-0-19-182990-1.

[28] Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt". The Arab Studies Journal. 17 (1). [Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Arab Studies Journal, Arab Studies Institute]: 9–31. ISSN 1083-4753.

[29] Dougherty, J. E. (1959). "The Aswan Decision in Perspective". Political Science Quarterly. 74 (1). [Academy of Political Science, Wiley]: 21–45. doi:10.2307/2145939. ISSN 0032-3195.

[30] McNeill, J. R. (2000). Something new under the sun: an environmental history of the twentieth-century world. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 169-170. ISBN 978-0-393-32183-8.

[31] Swain, A. (1997). "Ethiopia, the Sudan, and Egypt: The Nile River Dispute". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 35 (4). Cambridge University Press: 675–694. ISSN 0022-278X.

[32] Gebreluel, G. (3 April 2014). "Ethiopia's Grand Renaissance Dam: Ending Africa's Oldest Geopolitical Rivalry?". The Washington Quarterly. 37 (2). Routledge: 25–37. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2014.926207. ISSN 0163-660X.

[33] Gottschalk, K. (3 May 2016). "Hydro-politics and hydro-power: the century-long saga of the Inga project". Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines. 50 (2). Routledge: 279–294. doi:10.1080/00083968.2016.1222297. ISSN 0008-3968.

[Tsikudo-34] Adovor Tsikudo, K. (2 January 2021). "Ghana's Bui Hydropower Dam and Linkage Creation Challenges". Forum for Development Studies. 48 (1). Routledge: 153–174. doi:10.1080/08039410.2020.1858953. ISSN 0803-9410.

[35] Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa". African Studies Review. 64 (2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. doi:10.1017/asr.2020.41.

[36] Klunne, Q. J. (1 August 2013). "Small hydropower in Southern Africa – an overview of five countries in the region". Journal of Energy in Southern Africa. 24 (3): 14–25. doi:10.17159/2413-3051/2013/v24i3a3138. ISSN 2413-3051.

[37] Rodríguez, I. B. (30 December 2011). "¿Fue el sector eléctrico un gran beneficiario de «la política hidráulica» anterior a la Guerra Civil? (1911-1936)". Hispania. 71 (239): 789–818. doi:10.3989/hispania.2011.v71.i239.360. ISSN 1988-8368.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006217-38] Blackbourn 2006, p. 217.

[Parrinello-39] Parrinello, G. (2018). "Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970". Technology and Culture. 59 (3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 652–688. doi:10.1353/tech.2018.0062. ISSN 1097-3729.

[FOOTNOTEMcNeill2000174-175-40] McNeill 2000, p. 174-175.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006198-207-41] Blackbourn 2006, p. 198-207.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006212-213-42] Blackbourn 2006, p. 212-213.

[43] Landry, M. (2015). "Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps". Environmental History. 20 (3). [Oxford University Press, Forest History Society, American Society for Environmental History]: 422–448. ISSN 1084-5453.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006219-44] Blackbourn 2006, p. 219.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006327-45] Blackbourn 2006, p. 327.

[FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222-236-46] Blackbourn 2006, p. 222-236.

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@@ Line 42: / Line 42: @@
 Early on, [[Switzerland]] dammed the Alpine rivers and the [[Rhine|Swiss Rhine]], creating, along with [[Italy]] and [[Scandinavia]], a Southern Europe hydropower race.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=217}} In Italy’s [[Po Valley]], the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign.<ref name = "Parrinello">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Parrinello, G.)) | journal=Technology and Culture | title=Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970 | volume=59 | issue=3 | pages=652–688 | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | date= 2018 | issn=1097-3729 | doi=10.1353/tech.2018.0062}}</ref> These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI.{{sfn|McNeill|2000|p=174-175}}<ref name = "Parrinello"/>
 Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=198-207}} The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar [[Urft Dam|Urft]], [[Möhne Reservoir|Mohne]], and [[Edersee Dam|Eder]] dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=212-213}} However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south. [[Bavaria]] even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the [[Walchensee]] in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Landry, M.)) | journal=Environmental History | title=Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps | volume=20 | issue=3 | pages=422–448 | publisher=[Oxford University Press, Forest History Society, American Society for Environmental History] | date= 2015 | issn=1084-5453}}</ref> Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern ‘coal barons’, although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=219}} Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=327}} However, conflict accompanied the dam building and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=222-236}}
-==Programming==
-[[File:C-SPAN 112th Congress Roll Call.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|C-SPAN's [[High-definition television|HDTV]] coverage of the beginning of the [[112th United States Congress|112th Congress]] on January 5, 2011. The on-screen design seen here was used from April 19, 2010, to January 17, 2016.]]
-===C-SPAN and C-SPAN2 Programs===
-The C-SPAN network's core programming is live coverage of the U.S. House and Senate floors; C-SPAN focused on the [[United States House of Representatives]] and C-SPAN2 on the [[United States Senate]].<ref name=Hodges>{{cite news |title=Historic debates will mark 15 years of C-SPAN |first=Ann|last=Hodges |newspaper=[[The Houston Chronicle]] |page=4 |url=http://w3.nexis.com/new/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=3SJB-93Y0-0030-W550&csi=8380&oc=00240&perma=true |date=March 19, 1994 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>
-The political phone-in and interview program ''Washington Journal'', which covers current events, premiered January 4, 1995, and airs mornings on C-SPAN.<ref name=Milestones>{{cite web |url=http://legacy.c-span.org/about/company/index.asp?code=MILESTONES |title=C-SPAN Milestones |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717175854/http://legacy.c-span.org/about/company/index.asp?code=MILESTONES |archive-date=July 17, 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> It hosts guests including elected officials, government administrators, and journalists who answer interviewer and phone-in questions.<ref name=Irvine>{{cite news |title=Accuracy in media; Left-Winger's "Truth' Exposed As Make-Believe |author=[[Reed Irvine]] |newspaper=[[Chattanooga Free Press]] |page=A11 |url=http://w3.nexis.com/new/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=3SP2-BXX0-00C0-G48F&csi=155832&oc=00240&perma=true |date=May 10, 1998 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>
-On weekends, C-SPAN2 broadcasts ''[[Book TV]]'', programming about non-fiction books, book events, and authors, which first launched in September 1998. ''[[Booknotes]]'' was originally broadcast from [[List of Booknotes interviews first aired in 1989|1989]] to [[List of Booknotes interviews first aired in 2004|2004]],<ref name=Boston>{{cite news |title='Booknotes' Afterword |newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/editorials/articles/2004/08/19/booknotes_afterword/ |date=August 19, 2004 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> as a one-hour one-on-one [[interview]] of a non-fiction author.<ref name=Heltzel>{{cite news |title=Books on TV, and a Host Who Listens |author=Ellen Emry Heltzel |newspaper=[[The Oregonian]] |page=F07 |url=http://w3.nexis.com/new/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=4JN6-91T0-TX1M-R2X2&csi=235910&oc=00240&perma=true |location=Portland, Oregon |date=August 17, 1997 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> Repeats of the interviews remain a regular part of the ''Book TV'' schedule.<ref>{{cite news|title=C-SPAN's 'Booknotes' nearing end|url=http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2004/08/12/tem_0812booknotes.html|access-date=April 26, 2015|work=[[The Cincinnati Enquirer]]|date=August 12, 2004}}</ref> Other ''Book TV'' programs feature political and historical books and biographies of public figures. These include ''[[In Depth]]'', a live, monthly, three-hour interview with a single author, and ''[[After Words]]'',<ref name=Herald>{{cite news |title=Editorial |newspaper=[[The Sun Herald]] |page=C12 |url=http://w3.nexis.com/new/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=4GY3-4YN0-0190-K33T&csi=247810&oc=00240&perma=true |location=Biloxi, Mississippi |date=September 14, 2003 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> an author interview program featuring guest hosts interviewing authors on topics with which both are familiar.<ref name=Milliot>{{cite news |title=BookTV Eyes More Original Programming |first=Jim|last=Milliot |url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20050110/33417-booktv-eyes-more-original-programming.html |newspaper=[[Publishers Weekly]] |date=January 10, 2005 |access-date=May 15, 2013}}</ref>
-===Public Affairs Coverage===
-C-SPAN's public affairs coverage beyond House and Senate floor debates is wide-ranging. The networks cover U.S. political campaigns, including the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]], and [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian]] [[United States presidential nominating convention|presidential nominating conventions]], presidential campaign events through a weekly television program, ''[[Road to the White House]]'',<ref name=Hodges/> and at C-SPAN's dedicated politics website,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-span.org/politics/ |title=C-SPAN Politics |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=December 6, 2010}}</ref> and [[United States midterm elections|midterm elections]].<ref name=Rothstein10>{{cite web |url=https://www.adweek.com/digital/c-span-reaches-debate-milestone/ |title=C-SPAN Reaches Debate Milestone |first=Betsy |last=Rothstein |date=October 20, 2010 |work=[[Adweek]] |access-date=December 13, 2020}}</ref>
-Other United States events include [[congressional hearing]]s,<ref name=Hodges/> [[The White House|White House]] press briefings and presidential speeches, and meetings such as [[Federal Communications Commission]] hearings, the [[State of the Union]] and [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] press conferences.<ref name=Gillespie>{{cite web |url=http://reason.com/archives/2010/11/16/the-democratizer |title=The Democratizer |last=Gillespie |first=Nick |author-link=Nick Gillespie |date=December 2010 |work=reason.com |publisher=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]] |access-date=November 22, 2010}}</ref> The network also broadcasts [[press conference]]s and meetings of various [[Mass media|news media]] and nonprofit organizations, including the [[National Press Club (USA)|National Press Club]],<ref name=Ragsdale/> public policy seminars and the [[White House Correspondents' Dinner]].<ref name="Harden"/>
-C-SPAN also covers [[lying in state]] in the [[Capitol Rotunda]] and funerals of former presidents<ref name=Kubasik>{{cite news |title=Networks planning coverage of Nixon funeral |first=Ben|last=Kubasik |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=aGJWAAAAIBAJ&pg=4005,4621611 |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]] |location=Spokane, Washington |date=April 26, 1994 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref><ref name=Turegano>{{cite news |title=Television did its job as window on America's farewell to Reagan |first=Preston|last=Turegano |newspaper=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] |page=D-6 |url=http://w3.nexis.com/new/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=4CMN-XKJ0-TWDC-M3BB&csi=11811&oc=00240&perma=true |date=June 14, 2004 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> and other notable individuals.<ref name=Shannon>{{cite news |title=Lady Bird Johnson, former first lady, remembered at Texas funeral attended by 1,800 |first=Kelley |last=Shannon |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.iowastatedaily.com/news/article_71f2ae93-5c8b-5cc4-b0d6-2894e1383a98.html |date=July 14, 2007 |access-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801134924/https://www.iowastatedaily.com/news/article_71f2ae93-5c8b-5cc4-b0d6-2894e1383a98.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2005, C-SPAN covered [[Hurricane Katrina]] through [[NBC]] affiliate [[WDSU]] in [[New Orleans]], as well as coverage of [[Hurricane Ike]] via [[CBS]] affiliate [[KHOU]] in [[Houston]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Coverage of Gustav tops politics on Day 1 |first=John|last=Timpane |newspaper=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] |url=http://articles.philly.com/2008-09-02/news/25248177_1_c-span-coverage-convention-planners |date=September 2, 2008 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>
- Additionally, C-SPAN simulcasts [[NASA]] Space Shuttle mission launches and landings live, using video footage and audio sourced from [[NASA TV]].<ref name=AlBawaba>{{cite news |title=E-Vision launches C-Span channel on its cable network |newspaper=[[Al Bawaba]] |url=http://www.albawaba.com/news/e-vision-launches-c-span-channel-its-cable-network |location=Amman, Jordan |date=June 11, 2009 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>
-===International Coverage===
-C-SPAN broadcasts proceedings of the [[Parliament of Australia]], [[Parliament of Canada]], [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] and other governments, usually when they discuss matters of importance to viewers in the U.S.<ref>{{cite press release |title=BBC Parliament Goes Live on Digital Satellite |publisher=M2 Presswire |date=November 25, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/organization/40947 |title=Australian Parliament |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=July 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020024547/http://www.c-spanvideo.org/organization/40947 |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> The networks will also broadcast global news reports when major events occur, such as [[CBC Television]] coverage of the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref name=Milestones/> Since C-SPAN began airing in Canada in 1985,<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Clarity, J. F.)), ((Jr, W. W.)) | year=1985 | title=BRIEFING; C-SPAN in Canada | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/06/us/briefing-c-span-in-canada.html | access-date=12 January 2023}}</ref> C-SPAN also carries CBC coverage on events like [[Canadian federal elections]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.connect2canada.com/event/electionNight_2008/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112105321/http://www.connect2canada.com/event/electionNight_2008/  |archive-date=January 12, 2012 |title=Election night 2008 |work=Connect2Canada.com |publisher=Connect2Canada |access-date=December 7, 2010}}</ref> the [[death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau]],<ref>{{cite video |date=October 3, 2000 |title=Former Prime Minister Trudeau Funeral |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Trudea |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=October 18, 2013}}</ref> and the [[2003 North America blackout]].<ref>{{cite video |date=August 14, 2003 |title=Northeastern Electricity Failures |url=http://c-spanvideo.org/program/Northeaste |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=October 18, 2013 |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131017060612/http://c-spanvideo.org/program/Northeaste |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite video |date=September 3, 2003 |title=Northeast Power Outages, Day 1 |url=http://c-spanvideo.org/program/Outage |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=October 18, 2013 |archive-date=October 31, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031235723/http://c-spanvideo.org/program/Outage |url-status=dead }}</ref> During early 2011, C-SPAN carried broadcasts by [[Al Jazeera]] to cover the events in [[2011 Egyptian revolution|Egypt]], [[Tunisian revolution|Tunisia]], and other Arab nations.<ref name=Milestones/><ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite web |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Qadha |title=Moammar Qadhafi Address |date=March 2, 2011 |work=c-spanvideo.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=March 15, 2011}}</ref>
-With its public affairs programming, C-SPAN intends to offer different viewpoints by allowing time for multiple opinions to be discussed on a given topic. For example, in 2004 C-SPAN intended to televise a speech by [[Holocaust]] [[historian]] [[Deborah Lipstadt]] adjacent to a speech by [[Holocaust denier]] [[David Irving]], who had [[Irving v Penguin Books Ltd|unsuccessfully sued Lipstadt]] for [[libel]] in the [[United Kingdom]] four years earlier; C-SPAN was criticized for its use of the word "balance" to describe the plan to cover both Lipstadt and Irving.<ref>{{cite web |title=C-SPAN's David Irving contretemps |url=http://www.adl.org/learn/extremism_in_america_updates/individuals/david_irving/irving_update_20050413.htm |date=April 13, 2005 |work=adl.org |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |access-date=July 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801105915/http://www.adl.org/learn/extremism_in_america_updates/individuals/david_irving/irving_update_20050413.htm |archive-date=August 1, 2009 }}</ref><ref name=Cohen05>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN's Balance of the Absurd |first=Richard|last=Cohen |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A35346-2005Mar14.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=March 15, 2005 |access-date=June 11, 2013}}</ref> When Lipstadt ended media access to her speech, C-SPAN canceled coverage of both.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lipstadt/Irving Libel Trial |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Lipst |work=c-spanvideo.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=March 22, 2011}}</ref>
-The network strives for [[Objectivity (journalism)|neutrality]] and a lack of [[bias]]; in all programming when on-camera hosts are present their role is simply to facilitate and explain proceedings to the viewer.<ref name=Barnhart/> Due to this policy, C-SPAN hosts do not state their names on television.<ref name="Wallace"/>
-===C-SPAN3===
-C-SPAN 3 covers public affairs events, congressional hearings and history programming.<ref name="faq" /> The weekday programming on C-SPAN3 (from the morning — anywhere from 6 to 8:30&nbsp;a.m. — to 8 p.m. Eastern Time) features uninterrupted live public affairs events, in particular political events from Washington, D.C.<ref name=Moss/> Each weekend since January 8, 2011, the network has broadcast 48 hours of programming dedicated to the history of the United States, under the [[umbrella title]] ''American History TV''.<ref name=NewsCheck/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wired.com/geekdad/2011/01/turn-to-c-span-for-american-history/ |title=Turn to C-SPAN for American History |first=Jenny|last=Williams |date=January 7, 2011 |work=wired.com |publisher=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |access-date=January 17, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=C-SPAN Launching History Programming Block |first=Alex |last=Weprin |url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/c-span-launching-history-programming-block_b47006 |date=January 6, 2011 |work=mediabistro.com |publisher=[[WebMediaBrands]] |access-date=May 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808054530/http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/c-span-launching-history-programming-block_b47006 |archive-date=August 8, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The programming covers the history of the U.S. from the founding of the nation through the late 20th century. Programs include ''American Artifacts'', which is dedicated to exploring museums, archives and historical sites, and ''Lectures in History'', featuring major university history professors giving lectures on U.S. history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historynet.com/american-history-tv-new-from-c-span.htm |title=American History TV – New from C-SPAN |author=Gerald D. Swick |date=January 18, 2011 |work=historynet.com |publisher=Weider History Group |access-date=November 22, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, C-SPAN3 aired an eight-installment series of interviews from the [[Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics]] at the [[University of Kansas]], which featured historian [[Richard Norton Smith]] and Vice President [[Walter Mondale]], among other interviewees.<ref name=States>{{cite press release |title=C-SPAN3 to Air Dole Institute Interviews with Bob Dole, Walter Mondale |url=http://archive.news.ku.edu/2009/november/20/cspan.shtml |publisher=[[The University of Kansas]] |date=November 20, 2009 |access-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-date=March 27, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327013907/http://archive.news.ku.edu/2009/november/20/cspan.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-===Special programming===
-C-SPAN has also occasionally produced special episodes and series. In 1989, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary with a three-hour retrospective on the history of the network.<ref name=Shales /> In 1994, ''Booknotes'' collaborated with Lincoln scholar [[Harold Holzer]] to produce [[The Lincoln–Douglas Debates (1994 reenactments)|reenactments]] of the [[Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858|1858 Lincoln–Douglas debates]] for the network's 15th anniversary.<ref name=Rust>{{cite news |title=Americans Speak Up on Talk TV |first=Michael|last=Rust |newspaper=[[Insight on the News]] |url=https://www.questia.com/library/1G1-20204516/americans-speak-up-on-talk-tv |date=February 9, 1998 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> [[The Alexis de Tocqueville Tour: Exploring Democracy in America]] and ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' took viewers on tours of the United States, themed around [[Alexis de Tocqueville]]'s travels and the works of 40 famous American writers, respectively.<ref name=Prial>{{cite news |title=After Many Million Pages, 'Booknotes' Ends Its Run |author=Frank J. Prial |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/04/arts/television/04lamb.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=December 4, 2004 |access-date=May 15, 2013}}</ref> The year-long series ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', produced to commemorate the 20th anniversary of C-SPAN, won a [[Peabody Award]].<ref>{{cite web|title=American Presidents: Life Portraits|url=http://www.c-span.org/series/?presidents|publisher=C-SPAN|access-date=March 7, 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/american-presidents-life-portraits 59th Annual Peabody Awards], May 2000.</ref> The network has also produced special feature documentaries on the history of various American institutions and landmarks. In 2005, C-SPAN hosted a 25-hour "call-in marathon" and essay contest, the winner of which was invited to co-host an hour of the broadcast, to commemorate 25 years of taking viewer telephone calls.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legacy.c-span.org/C-SPAN25/contestwinners.asp |title=C-SPAN's 24-Hour Call-In Marathon |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=June 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819231444/http://legacy.c-span.org/C-SPAN25/contestwinners.asp |archive-date=August 19, 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>
-===Radio broadcasts===
-In addition to the three television networks, C-SPAN also broadcasts via C-SPAN Radio, which is carried on their [[owned-and-operated station]] [[WCSP-FM]] (90.1 FM) in the Washington, D.C., area with all three cable network feeds airing via [[HD Radio]] subchannels, and nationwide on XM Satellite Radio.<ref name=Babington>{{cite news |title=Radio Deal Could Face Technical Difficulties; XM, Sirius Systems Already Strained |first=Charles|last=Babington |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-5829372.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808122035/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-5829372.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 8, 2014 |date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> Its programming is also livestreamed at c-span.org and is available via [[application software|apps]] for iPhone, BlackBerry and Android devices.<ref name=C-SPANRadio>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-span.org/C-SPAN-Radio/How-to-Listen-to-C-SPAN-Radio/ |title=How to Listen to C-SPAN Radio |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=June 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104200941/http://www.c-span.org/C-SPAN-Radio/How-to-Listen-to-C-SPAN-Radio/ |archive-date=January 4, 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Relax>{{cite news |title=The most popular iPhone news applications |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=March 23, 2010 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/the-most-popular-iphone-news-applications-1927640.html |access-date=October 11, 2010 |archive-date=September 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925044710/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/the-most-popular-iphone-news-applications-1927640.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> C-SPAN Radio has a selective policy regarding its broadcast content, rather than duplicating the television network programming, although it does offer some audio simulcasts of programs such as ''Washington Journal''.<ref name=Kaltenbach>{{cite news |title=New station features processes of government; Radio: WCSP-FM (90.1) serves up large doses of public policy as it's happening, but more selectively than C-SPAN. |first=Chris |last=Kaltenbach |newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-02-22/features/1998053072_1_c-span-spence-public-policy |date=February 22, 1998 |access-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-date=October 4, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220759/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-02-22/features/1998053072_1_c-span-spence-public-policy |url-status=dead }}</ref> Unique programming on the radio station includes [[oral history|oral histories]], and some committee meetings and press conferences not shown on television due to programming commitments. The station also compiles the [[Sunday morning talk shows]] for a same-day rebroadcast without commercials, in rapid succession.<ref name=Kaltenbach/>
-===Online availability ===
-[[File:C-SPAN Video Library.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Home page of the C-SPAN Video Library]]
-C-SPAN archival video is available through the [[C-SPAN Video Library]], maintained at the [[Purdue Research Park]] in [[West Lafayette, Indiana]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/about |title=About C-SPAN Video Library |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=June 4, 2011 |archive-date=December 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222124353/http://www.c-spanvideo.org/about |url-status=dead }}</ref> Unveiled in August 2007,<ref name=Milestones/> the C-SPAN Video Library contains all of the network's programming since 1987, totaling more than 160,000 hours at its completion of digitization and public debut in March 2010.<ref name=Reynolds>{{Cite web |url=http://www.multichannel.com/article/457243-ACC_Awards_Golden_Beacon_To_C_SPAN_s_Video_Library.php |title=ACC Awards Golden Beacon To C-SPAN's Video Library |first=Mike |last=Reynolds |date=September 16, 2010 |work=multichannel.com |publisher=[[NewBay Media]] |access-date=September 27, 2010 |archive-date=July 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725030353/http://www.multichannel.com/article/457243-ACC_Awards_Golden_Beacon_To_C_SPAN_s_Video_Library.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Early races for Congress may give forecast for November; C-SPAN presents |first=Chris|last=Cillizza |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=March 15, 2010 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/14/AR2010031402796.html |access-date=September 27, 2010}}</ref> Older C-SPAN programming continues to be added to the library, dating back to the beginning of the network in 1979,<ref name=Stelter>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN Puts Full Archives on the Web |first=Brian|last=Stelter |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 15, 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/16/arts/television/16cspan.html |access-date=September 27, 2010}}</ref> and some limited earlier footage from the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]], such as film clips of [[Richard Nixon]]'s 1972 trip to China, is available as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gns.gannettonline.com/article/20100325/COLUMNISTS01/3250301 |title=Changing the way we view history |first=Chuck |last=Raasch |date=March 25, 2010 |work=gannettonline.com |publisher=[[Gannett Company|Gannett News Service Multimedia]] |access-date=September 27, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711072211/http://gns.gannettonline.com/article/20100325/COLUMNISTS01/3250301 |archive-date=July 11, 2011 }}</ref> Most of the recordings before 1987 (when the C-SPAN Archive was established) were not saved, except for approximately 10,000 hours of video which are slated to be made available online.<ref name=Stelter/> {{as of|2021|November|df=US}}, the C-SPAN Video Library held over 271,000 hours of programming, and they have been viewed over 253&nbsp;million times. Described by media commentators as a major educational service and a valuable resource for researchers of politics and history,<ref name=Stelter/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mediaite.com/online/c-span-online-archives-will-redefine-social-studies-education-in-america/ |title=C-SPAN Online Archives Will Redefine Social Studies Education in America |first=Frances|last=Martel |date=March 16, 2010 |work=mediaite.com |publisher=[[Mediaite]] |access-date=September 27, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21134540 |title=C-SPAN Digital Archives |author=[[Brian Williams]] |date=September 24, 2010 |work=NBC News |publisher=[[NBCNews.com]] |access-date=September 27, 2010}}</ref> the C-SPAN Video Library has also had a major role in media and [[opposition research]] in several U.S. political campaigns.<ref>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN's blasts from the past |author=[[Howard Kurtz]] |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 23, 2010 |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/howard-kurtz/2010/09/c-spans_blasts_from_the_past.html |access-date=September 27, 2010}}</ref> It won a [[Peabody Award]] in 2010 "for creating an enduring archive of the history of American policymaking, and for providing it as a free, user-friendly public service."<ref>[http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/c-span-video-library 70th Annual Peabody Awards], May 2011.</ref>
-Prior to the initiation of the C-SPAN Video Library, websites such as [[Metavid]] and voterwatch.org hosted House and Senate video records, however C-SPAN contested Metavid's usage of C-SPAN copyrighted footage. The result was Metavid's removal of portions of the archive produced with C-SPAN's cameras, while preserving its archive of government-produced content.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metavid.ucsc.edu/wiki/index.php/Democratizing_the_Archive:_An_Open_Interface_for_Mediation#Motivations_for_Metavid_and_its_Contested_Legality |title=Democratizing the Archive: An Open Interface for Mediation |publisher=Metavid |access-date=October 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605053154/http://metavid.ucsc.edu/wiki/index.php/Democratizing_the_Archive%3A_An_Open_Interface_for_Mediation |archive-date=June 5, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> C-SPAN also engaged in actions to stop parties from making unauthorized uses of its content online, including its video of House and Senate proceedings. Most notably, in May 2006, C-SPAN requested the removal of [[Stephen Colbert at the 2006 White House Correspondents' Association Dinner|Stephen Colbert's performance]] at the [[White House Correspondents' Association#White House Correspondents' Dinner|White House Correspondents' Association Dinner]] from [[YouTube]].<ref name=APColbert06>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN Asks Sites to Pull Colbert |url=https://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2006/05/70849 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 8, 2006 |access-date=June 11, 2013}}</ref> After concerns by some webloggers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boingboing.net/2006/05/04/why_was_colbert_pres.html |title=Why was Colbert press corps video removed from YouTube? |work=boingboing.net |publisher=[[Boing Boing]] |author=[[Xeni Jardin]] |date=May 4, 2006 |access-date=October 12, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709004329/http://www.boingboing.net/2006/05/04/why_was_colbert_pres.html |archive-date=July 9, 2008 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> C-SPAN gave permission for [[Google Video]] to host the full event.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/08/technology/08colbert.html |access-date=July 5, 2006 |title=A Comedian's Riff on Bush Prompts an E-Spat |first=Noam|last=Cohen |date=May 8, 2006 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> On March 7, 2007, C-SPAN liberalized its copyright policy for current, future, and past coverage of any official events sponsored by Congress and any federal agency and now allows for attributed non-commercial copying, sharing, and posting of C-SPAN video on the Internet,<ref name=Hunt07>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN alters copyright over Pelosi flap |first=Kaise|last=Hunt |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-03-07-1965288649_x.htm |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 7, 2007 |access-date=June 11, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://legacy.c-span.org/about/press/release.asp?code=video |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710020305/http://legacy.c-span.org/about/press/release.asp?code=video |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 10, 2012 |title=C-SPAN Takes Lead in Making Video of Congressional Hearings, White House and Other Federal Events More Widely Available to Online Community |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |date=March 7, 2007 |access-date=March 22, 2011 }}</ref> excluding re-syndication of live video streams. The new policy did not affect the public's right to use the public domain video coverage of the floor proceedings of the U.S. House and Senate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-span.org/About/C-SPAN-Copyright-Policy/ |title=Copyright Policy for Educators |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=March 22, 2011 |quote=The video coverage of the floor proceedings of the U.S. House of Representatives and of the U.S. Senate is public domain material and is not subject to this license, and as such, may also be used for educational purposes.}}</ref>
-In 2008, C-SPAN's online political coverage was expanded just prior to the elections, with the introduction of three special pages on the C-SPAN website: the C-SPAN Convention Hubs and C-SPAN Debate Hub, which offered video of major events as well as discussion from weblogs and social media about the major party conventions and candidate debates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nms.com/pressroom/entry/c-span-engages-new-media-strategies-for-innovative-online-convention-covera/ |title=C-SPAN Engages New Media Strategies for Innovative Online Convention Coverage |date=August 12, 2008 |work=nms.com |publisher=[[New Media Strategies]] |access-date=December 2, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810070530/http://nms.com/pressroom/entry/c-span-engages-new-media-strategies-for-innovative-online-convention-covera/ |archive-date=August 10, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zdnet.com/blog/gadgetreviews/exclusive-c-span-launches-gadget-fueled-debate-hub-as-social-political-destination/381 |title=EXCLUSIVE: C-SPAN Launches Gadget-Fueled 'Debate Hub' as Social, Political Destination |first=Andrew|last=Nusca |date=September 25, 2008 |work=zdnet.com |publisher=[[ZDNet]] |access-date=December 3, 2010}}</ref> C-SPAN brought back the Convention Hub for the [[2012 United States presidential election|2012 presidential election]].<ref name=Fitzpatrick13>{{cite news |title=C-SPAN's Online Hub Provides Raw Convention Coverage |first=Alex|last=Fitzpatrick |url=http://mashable.com/2012/08/23/cspan-convention-hub/ |newspaper=[[Mashable]] |date=August 23, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref>
-In addition to the programming available in the C-SPAN Video Library, all C-SPAN programming is available as a live feed streamed on its website in [[Flash Video]] format.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-span.org/About/Solving-Video-Problems/ |title=Solving Video Problems |work=c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=December 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221043614/http://www.c-span.org/About/Solving-Video-Problems/ |archive-date=December 21, 2010 }}</ref>
-On July 29, 2014, C-SPAN announced that it would begin [[TV Everywhere|restricting access to the live feeds]] of the main channel, C-SPAN2 and C-SPAN3 to subscribers of cable or satellite providers later that summer, citing concerns with the slow shift in viewing habits from cable television to the internet due to its reliance on carriage fees from cable and satellite providers. However, it will continue to allow all government meetings, hearings and conferences to be streamed live online and via archived on the C-SPAN Video Library without requiring an authenticated login by a provider; live audio feeds of all three channels are also available for free through the network's [[mobile app]]. The decision drew some criticism from public interest and government transparency advocates, citing the fact that C-SPAN was designed as a public service.<ref>{{cite news|title=C-SPAN to require TV subscription for some programs|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/07/29/cspan-live-streaming-subsctription/13315733/|first=Adam|last=Ganucheau|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=July 29, 2014|access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=C-SPAN limiting access to its online channels|url=http://thehill.com/policy/technology/213714-c-span-limiting-access-to-its-online-channels|first=Julian|last=Hattem|date=July 29, 2014|access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|December 2019}}, C-SPAN has begun advertising on its online videos, with YouTube-style advertisements that can be skipped after 5 seconds.<ref>{{cite news|title=C-SPAN reworks its monetization model|url=https://www.nexttv.com/features/c-span-reworks-its-monetization-model/|first=John|last=Eggerton|newspaper=[[Multichannel News]]|date=October 19, 2020|access-date=December 9, 2020}}</ref>
-According to the results of a survey after the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992 presidential election]], 85% of C-SPAN viewers voted in that election.<ref name=Harden>{{cite news |title=Feasting on C-SPAN; Diet of Public Affairs TV Puts Political Junkies Inside Beltway |first=Blaine|last=Harden |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-781215.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105213902/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-781215.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 5, 2013 |date=May 9, 1996 |access-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref> The results of a similar survey in 2013 found that 89% of C-SPAN viewers voted in the 2012 presidential election.<ref name="JohnEggerton"/>
-C-SPAN has covered historical events including the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf conflict]] during 1991, the [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|House impeachment vote and Senate trial]] of President [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998 and 1999, and the [[First impeachment of Donald Trump|impeachment proceedings of President Trump in 2019 and 2020]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=C-SPAN's Impeachment Coverage {{!}} C-SPAN.org|url=https://www.c-span.org/impeachment/|access-date=July 4, 2020|website=www.c-span.org}}</ref><ref name=Ragsdale/>
-While C-SPAN does not have video access to the Supreme Court, the network has used the Court's audio recordings accompanied by still photographs of the justices and lawyers to cover the Court in session on significant cases, and has covered individual Supreme Court justices' speaking engagements.<ref name=Cohen>{{cite web |url=http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/10/08/c-spans-supreme-court-broadcasts-do-you-have-the-right-to-burn/ |title=C-SPAN's Supreme Court Broadcasts: Do You Have the Right to Burn the Flag? |first=Andrew |last=Cohen |date=October 8, 2010 |work=politicsdaily.com |publisher=[[AOL]] |access-date=October 11, 2010 |archive-date=October 5, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005183859/http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/10/08/c-spans-supreme-court-broadcasts-do-you-have-the-right-to-burn/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>