Chinese language

Chinese
汉语 Hànyǔ, 中文 Zhōngwén
Native to	People's Republic of China (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau), Republic of China (Taiwan), Singapore, and other regions with Chinese communities
Region	(majorities): East Asia (minorities): Southeast Asia, and other regions with Chinese communities
Native speakers	more than 1.3 billion
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Chinese
Writing system	Chinese characters
Official status
Official language in	China Singapore Taiwan United Nations
Regulated by	In the PRC: National Language Regulating Comittee[1](in Chinese) In the ROC: Mandarin Promotion Council In Singapore: Promote Mandarin Council/Speak Mandarin Campaign [2]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	zh
ISO 639-2	chi (B) zho (T)
ISO 639-3	Variously: zho – Chinese (generic) cdo – Min Dong cjy – Jinyu cmn – Mandarin cpx – Pu Xian czh – Huizhou czo – Min Zhong gan – Gan hak – Hakka hsn – Xiang mnp – Min Bei nan – Min Nan wuu – Wu yue – Cantonese

Chinese or the Sinitic language(s) (汉语/漢語, Pinyin: Hànyǔ; 华语/華語, Huáyǔ; or 中文, Zhōngwén) can be considered a language or language family. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the two branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages. About one-fifth of the world’s population, or over 1 billion people, speak some form of Chinese as their native language. The identification of the varieties of Chinese as "languages" or "dialects" is a debatable issue, both linguistically and politically. As a language family Chinese has nearly 1.2 billion speakers; Mandarin Chinese alone has around 850 million native speakers, outnumbering any other languages in the world.

Spoken Chinese is distinguished by its high level of internal diversity, though all spoken varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. There are between six and twelve main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most populous (by far) is Mandarin (c. 850 million), followed by Wu (c. 90 million) and Cantonese (c. 80 million). Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, though some, like Xiang and the Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms and some degree of intelligibility. Chinese is classified as a macrolanguage with 13 sub-languages in ISO 639-3, though the identification of the varieties of Chinese as multiple "languages" or as "dialects" of a single language is a contentious issue.

The standardized form of spoken Chinese is Standard Mandarin, based on the Beijing dialect. Standard Mandarin is the official language of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. Chinese—de facto, Standard Mandarin—is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Of the other varieties, Standard Cantonese is most common and influential in overseas communities, remaining the official language of Hong Kong (together with English) and of Macau (together with Portuguese).

Spoken Chinese

Main article: spoken Chinese

The map below depicts the linguistic subdivisions ("languages" or "dialect groups") within China itself. The traditionally-recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:

• Mandarin 北方话/北方話 or 官話/官话, (c. 800 million)，
• Wu 吳/吴 , which includes Shanghainese, (c. 90 million)，
• Cantonese 粵/粤, (c. 80 million)，
• Min 閩/闽, which includes Taiwanese, (c. 50 million),
• Xiang 湘, (c. 35 million),
• Hakka 客家 or 客, (c. 35 million)，
• Gan 贛/赣, (c. 20 million)

Chinese linguists have recently distinguished 3 more groups from the traditional seven:

• Jin 晉/晋 from Mandarin
• Hui 徽 from Wu
• Ping 平話/平话 partly from Cantonese

There are also many smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: Danzhou dialect, spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island; Xianghua (乡话), not to be confused with Xiang (湘), spoken in western Hunan; and Shaozhou Tuhua, spoken in northern Guangdong. The Dungan language, spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered "Chinese" since it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by Dungan people outside China who are not considered ethnic Chinese. See List of Chinese dialects for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings.

File:Map-Sinitic Languages.gif

The varieties of spoken Chinese in China

In general, the above language-dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries, though Mandarin is the pre-dominant Sinitic language in the North and the Southwest, and the rest are mostly spoken in Central or Southeastern China. Frequently, as in the case of the Guangdong province, native speakers of major variants overlapped. As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The Ethnologue lists a total of 14, but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme followed. For instance, the Min variety is often divided into Northern Min (Minbei, Fuchow) and Southern Min (Minnan, Amoy-Swatow); linguists have not determined whether their mutual intelligibility is large enough to sort them as separate languages.

In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbours. For instance, Wuzhou is about 120 miles upstream from Guangzhou, but its dialect is more like Standard Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of Taishan, 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, 1987).

Standard Mandarin and diglossia

Main article: Standard Mandarin

Standard Mandarin, as putonghua (“ordinary speech”), was introduced in 1954 by the People's Republic of China as the official Chinese spoken standard, and used for all government-disseminated materials, the mass media, schools and universities as a supra-dialectal lingua franca for Chinese nationals. It is based on the Beijing dialect, which is the prestige dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. Putonghua is very similar to guoyu (“national spoken language”), the national standard adopted by the Nationalists and continued in Taiwan under the Republic of China. Singapore formally adopted putonghua in 1965, and discouraged all use of other Chinese “dialects” after 1969; in Singapore, as in the Southeast Asia regions and the Chinese diaspora elsewhere, Standard Mandarin is known as huayu (“spoken language of the Chinese ethnicity”).

In both China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature: it is common for a Chinese to be able to speak two or three varieties of the Sinitic languages (or “dialects”) together with Standard Mandarin. Together with putonghua, a resident of Shanghai may speak Shanghainese; a resident of Guangdong may speak Standard Cantonese, plus his or her local dialect; a resident of Taiwan, Taiwanese. A person living in Taiwan may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese, and this mixture is considered socially appropriate under many circumstances. Similarly, in Hong Kong, standard Mandarin is beginning to take its place beside English and Standard Cantonese, the official language.

Language or language family?

Main article: Identification of the varieties of Chinese

Modern Chinese is usually classed as a language family by international linguists, though owing to China's socio-political and cultural situation, and the fact that all spoken varieties use one common written system, it is customary to refer to these generally mutually unintelligible variants as “the Chinese language”. The diversity of Sinitic variants is comparable to the Romance languages, and greater than the North Germanic languages.

From a purely descriptive point of view, "languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar idiolects, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches technically. However, the idea of a single language has major overtones in politics and cultural self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue. Most Chinese and Chinese linguists refer to Chinese as a single language and its subdivisions dialects, while others call Chinese a language family and its subdivisions languages.

Chinese itself has a term for its unified writing system, zhongwen (中文), while the closest equivalent used to described its spoken variants would be Hanyu (汉语,“spoken language[s] of the Han people) – this term could be translated to either “language” or “languages” since Chinese possesses no grammatical numbers. In the Chinese language, there is much less need for a uniform speech-and-writing continuum, as indicated by two separate character morphemes 语 yu and 文 wen. Ethnic Chinese often consider these spoken variations as one single language for reasons of nationality and as they inherit one common cultural and linguistic heritage in Classical Chinese. Han native speakers of Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese, for instance, may consider their own linguistic varieties as separate spoken languages, but the Han Chinese race as one – albeit internally very diverse – ethnicity. The idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that the Chinese identity is much more fragmentary and disunified than it actually is, and as such is often looked upon as culturally and politically provocative by many Chinese natives and nationalists. Additionally, it is often used to legitimize secessionist movements, as in Taiwan, where some supporters of Taiwanese independence promote the local Taiwanese Minnan-based spoken language.

Within the People’s Republic of China and Singapore, it is common for the government to refer to all divisions of the Sinitic language(s) beside standard Mandarin as fangyan (“regional speeches”, often translated as “dialects”). Modern-day Chinese speakers of all kinds communicate using one formal standard written language, although this modern written standard is modeled after Mandarin, generally the modern Beijing substandard.

Written Chinese

Main article: Chinese written language

See also: Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese

The relationship among the Chinese spoken and written languages is a complex one. Its spoken variations evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. Classical Chinese literature began in the Spring and Autumn period, although written records has been discovered as far back tracing Chinese to the 14th to 11th centuries BC Shang dynasty oracle bones using the oracle bone scripts.

By the late Han dynasty however, standard written Chinese had already diverged from the contemporaneous vernacular. By the end of the 19th century, only the educated class could write this formalized classical Chinese, known as wenyan, which was the language of Confucius and the early classics and very far from what was spoken more than two millennia later. During the Ming and Qing dynasty a stream of novels written in the vernacular medium began to gain prominence, and by the 20th century it was clear to many language reformists that the literary written standard should be discarded. The May Fourth Movement of 1919, headed by Hu Shih, advocated for a vernacular idiom; it slowly gained momentum and since the late 1920s, written standard has switched to the baihua vernacular (白話/白话 báihuà). Today this standard, which is closely modeled after how Mandarin is spoken now, is used throughout China, overseas and in virtually all modern literature.

The Chinese orthography centers around Chinese characters, hanzi, which are logograms written within imaginary rectangular blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from right to left, from top downwards. Chinese characters are morphemes independent of phonetic change. Thus the number "one", yi in Mandarin, yat in Cantonese and tsit in Hokkien (form of Min), all share an identical character ("一"). Vocabularies from different major Chinese variants have diverged, and colloquial non-standard written Chinese often makes use of unique "dialectal characters", such as 冇 and 係 for Cantonese and Hakka, which are considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese.

Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in online chat rooms and instant messaging amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere. Use of it is considered highly informal, and does not extend to any formal occasion.

Also, in Hunan, some women write their local language in Nü Shu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by some a dialect of Mandarin, is also nowadays written in Cyrillic, and was formerly written in the Arabic alphabet, although the Dungan people live outside China.

Chinese characters

Main article: Chinese character

The Chinese written language employs Chinese characters (漢字/汉字 pinyin: hànzì), which are logograms: each symbol represents a semanteme or morpheme (a meaningful unit of language), as well as one syllable; the written language can thus be termed a morphemo-syllabic script.

The idea that all Chinese characters are either pictographs or ideographs is an erroneous one: most characters contain phonetic parts, and are composites of phonetic components and semantic radicals. Only the simplest characters, such as ren 人 (human), ri 日 (sun), shan 山 (mountain), shui 水 (water), may be wholly pictorial in origin. In 100 AD, the famed scholar Xǚ Shèn in the Hàn Dynasty classified characters into 6 categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% as pictographs, and 80-90% as phonetic complexes consisting of a semantic element that indicates meaning, and a phonetic element that arguably once indicated the pronunciation. There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary, which indicate what the character is about semantically.

Modern characters are styled after the standard script (楷书/楷書 kǎishū) (see styles, below). Various other written styles are also used in East Asian calligraphy, including seal script (篆书/篆書 zhuànshū), cursive script (草书/草書 cǎoshū) and clerical script (隶书/隸書 lìshū). Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.

Various styles of Chinese calligraphy.

There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, still used in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back since the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, developed by the PRC Mainland China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common caoshu shorthand variants. With a larger pool of synonymous characters, the simplified version is quicker and easier to write and master.

Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, is the first – and at present the only – foreign nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading the alternative system, be it traditional or simplified.

A well-educated Chinese today recognizes approximately 6,000-7,000 characters; some 3,000 of them are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this literacy could be pretty functional. A large unabridged dictionary like the Kangxi Dictionary contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant and archaic characters; only a quarter are now commonly used.

History and evolution

Most linguists classify all varieties of modern spoken Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and believe that there was an original language, termed Proto-Sino-Tibetan, from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relation between Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages is an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is enough documentation to allow one to reconstruct the ancient Chinese sounds, there is no written documentation that records the division between proto-Sino-Tibetan and ancient Chinese. In addition, many of the older languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly understood.

Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in the early 1900s; most present systems rely heavily on Karlgren's insights and methods.

Old Chinese (simplified Chinese: 上古汉语; traditional Chinese: 上古漢語; pinyin: Shànggǔ Hànyǔ), sometimes known as "Archaic Chinese", was the language common during the early and middle Zhōu Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the Shījīng, the history of the Shūjīng, and portions of the Yìjīng (I Ching). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with Qīng dynasty philologists.

Middle Chinese (simplified Chinese: 中古汉语; traditional Chinese: 中古漢語; pinyin: Zhōnggǔ Hànyǔ) was the language used during the Suí, Táng, and Sòng dynasties (7th through 10th centuries AD). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the 切韻 "Qièyùn" rhyme table (601 AD), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the 廣韻 "Guǎngyùn" rhyme table. Linguists are more confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, "rhyming tables" constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; some scholars have argued that trying to reconstruct, say, modern Cantonese from modern Cantopop rhymes would give a fairly inaccurate picture of the present-day spoken language.

The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most northern Chinese people, in Sìchuān and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their home language. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of middle and southern China promoted linguistic diversity. The presence of Mandarin in Sichuan is largely due to a plague in the 12th century. This plague, which may have been related to the Black Death, depopulated the area, leading to later settlement from north China.

Until the mid-20th century, most southern Chinese only spoke their native local variety of Chinese. As Nanjing was the capital during the early Ming dynasty, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least until the later years of the officially Manchu-speaking Qing Empire. Since the 17th century, the Empire had set up orthoepy academies (simplified Chinese: 正音书院; traditional Chinese: 正音書院; pinyin: Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn) to make pronunciation conform to the Qing capital Beijing's standard, but had little success. During the Qing's last 50 years in the late 19th century, the Beijing Mandarin finally replaced Nanjing Mandarin in the imperial court. For the general population, though, a single standard of Mandarin did not exist. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their various regionalects for every aspect of life. The new Beijing Mandarin court standard was used solely by officials and civil servants and was thus fairly limited.

This situation did not change in the mid-20th century with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC, but not in Hong Kong) of a compulsory educational system committed to teaching Standard Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken by virtually all young and middle-aged citizens of mainland China and on Taiwan. Standard Cantonese, not Mandarin, was used in Hong Kong during its the time of its British colonial period (owing to its large Cantonese native and migrant populace) and remains today its official language of education, formal speech, and daily life, but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential after the 1997 handover.

Influences on other languages

Throughout history Chinese culture and politics exerted a vast and long-lasting influence on her immediate neighbors and their languages. Most cultures around China lacking a native orthology adopts the Chinese script, starting perhaps from the 5th century AD, when Sino influence extended abroad. The Koreans, Japanese and Vietnamese, the three major sinoptic languages, had all adopted Chinese characters, known as Hanja to the Koreans, Kanji to the Japanese and Hán tự to the Vietnamese, into their written languages. Versions of their Han characters may differ in minor ways, but are recognizably from the same source. Their languages also share many grammatical features with Chinese, notably in the use of classifiers and in the lack of gender.

The vocabulary of these countries derive a large amount of loanwords from Chinese. An estimated 50% or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin, while the Japanese and Vietnamese has been considerable. The Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages seem to retain some sounds of Classical Chinese that are otherwise only found in some languages of southern China. In these nations Classical Chinese was a prestige writing language at least until the late 19th century.

Japanese

Today only the Japanese language retains a sizeable proportion of Chinese characters, the kanji, in their language. Kanji characters generally share the same meaning as their modern Chinese counterparts, though usually pronounced differently, mostly polysyllabically

Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there have been debates about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient. Japan’s post-war kanji reform simplifies the more complex Traditional glyphs into simplier forms, many of which consulted by the PRC in their own simplified jianti glyphs.

Vietnamese

In Vietnam, Hán tự was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the 14th century, used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese elites.

From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with Chữ nôm, a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. This is now completely replaced by a modified Latin script, created by Jesuit missionary Alexander de Rhodes, which incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. The Vietnamese language exhibits multiple elements similar to Cantonese in regard to the specific intonations and sharp consonant endings. There is also a slight influence from Mandarin, including the sharper vowels and "kh" sound missing from other Asiatic languages.

Korean

Until the late 15th century, loaned Chinese characters, called Hanja, were the only means of writing the non-tonal Korean language.

In present-day South Korea, the Hangul alphabet – invented in the Choson Dynasty under King Sejong – has largely replaced Hanja, but Hanja is still used as a sort of boldface, in traditional weddings or calligraphy, as well as for purposes of disambiguation. In North Korea, Hangul is used exclusively; Hanja has been discontinued by the Communist regime for purposes of promoting a national identity.

Other languages

In Guangxi the Zhuangs had also used derived Chinese characters or Zhuang logograms to write songs, even though Zhuang is not a Han Chinese dialect. Since the 1950s, Zhuang is written in a modified Latin alphabet.

Phonology

For more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each spoken variety.

The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus consisting of a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties) with an optional onset or coda consonant as well as a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable.

Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Mandarin, are limited to only two, namely /n/ and /ŋ/. Consonant clusters do not generally occur in either the onset or coda. The onset may be an affricate or a consonant followed by a semivowel, but these are not generally considered consonant clusters.

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation.

All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.

A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the four main tones of Standard Mandarin applied to the syllable "ma." The tones correspond to these five characters: Template:Ruby notice

• 媽/妈(mā) "mother" — high level
• 麻(má) "hemp" — high rising
• 馬/马(mǎ) "horse" — low falling-rising
• 罵/骂(mà) "scold" — high falling
• 嗎/吗(ma) question particle — neutral

Phonetic transcriptions

The Chinese have no uniform phonetic transcription system until the 20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Sanskrit and Pali Indian translators were the first to attempt describing the sounds and enunciation patterns of the language in a foreign language. After 15th century AD Jesuits and Western court missionaries’ efforts result in some rudimentary Latin transcription systems, based on the Nanjing Mandarin dialect.

Romanization

Romanization is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages due to the Chinese's own lack of phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century.

Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is Hanyu Pinyin (漢語拼音/汉语拼音), often known simply as Pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, later adopted by Singapore (see Chinese language romanization in Singapore). Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across North America, Australia and Europe.

The second-most common romanization system, the Wade-Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859, later modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As it approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels (hence an Anglicization), it may be particularly helpful for beginner speakers of native English background. Wade-Giles is found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until recently was widely used in Taiwan (Taipei city now officially uses Hanyu Pinyin and the rest of the island officially uses Tōngyòng Pinyin 通用拼音/通用拼音).

When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade-Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade-Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with ‘Beijing’ than they will be with ‘Běijīng’ (pinyin), and with ‘Taipei’ than ‘T'ai²-pei³’ (Wade-Giles).

Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:

Mandarin Romanization Comparison

Characters	Wade-Giles	Hanyu Pinyin	Notes
中国/中國	Chung1-kuo²	Zhōngguó	"China"
北京	Pei³-ching1	Běijīng	Capital of the People's Republic of China
台北	T'ai²-pei³	Táiběi	Capital of the Republic of China in Taiwan
毛泽东/毛澤東	Mao² Tse²-tung1	Máo Zédōng	Former Communist Chinese leader
蒋介石/蔣介石	Chiang³ Chieh4-shih²	Jiǎng Jièshí	Former Nationalist Chinese leader
孔子	K'ung³ Tsu³	Kǒng Zǐ	"Confucius"

Other systems of romanization for Chinese include the École française d'Extrême-Orient, the Yale (invented during WWII for US troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages or dialects.

Other phonetic transcriptions

Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The phagspa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of pre-modern forms of Chinese.

Zhuyin (注音, also known as bopomofo), a katakana-inspired syllabary, is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. A comparison table of Zhuyin to Pinyin exists in the Zhuyin article. Syllables based on Pinyin and Zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:

• Pinyin table
• Zhuyin table

There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system.

Grammar and Morphology

Main article: Chinese grammar

Like Vietnamese, modern Chinese has often been erroneously classed as a "monosyllabic" language. While most of her morphemes are single syllable, Modern Chinese today is much less a monosyllabic language in that her nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely di-syllabic. The tendency to create disyllabic words in the modern Chinese languages, particularly in Mandarin, has been particularly pronounced when compared to Classical Chinese. Classical Chinese is a highly isolating language, with each idea (morpheme) generally corresponding to a single syllable and a single character; Modern Chinese though, have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character agglutination. In fact, some linguists argue that classifying modern Chinese as an isolating language is misleading, for this reason alone.

Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest blocks of the language. While many of these single-syllable morphemes ( zì, 字 in Chinese) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as cí (词/詞), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí (“word”) can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

For example:

• Yun – 云, “cloud”
• Jiguang 激光 –“laser”
• Hanbaobao 汉堡包 –“hamburger”

All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology, changes in form of a word, to indicate changes in meaning. In other words, Chinese has next to no grammatical inflections – it possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural), no articles (ie. equivalents to "the, a, an" in English) or gender.

They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like le 了, hai 还, yijing 已经, etc.

Chinese features Subject Verb Object word order, and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic-comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of measure words, another trait shared with neighbouring languages like Japanese and Korean. See Chinese measure words for an extensive coverage of this subject.

Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping.

Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. See Chinese grammar for the grammar of Standard Mandarin (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.

Tones and Homophones

Official modern Mandarin contains only 400 spoken monosyllables but comprises over 10,000 characters in entirety, with the result that there are multiple homophones which could only be distinguished via its four tones. Some are pronounced with the exact same tone, making even more difficult unless the context and exact phrase or cí is identified.

For instance, the mono-syllable jī, first tone in standard Mandarin, corresponds to the following characters: 雞/鸡 "chicken", 機/机 "machine", 基 basic, 擊/击 (to) hit, 饑/饥 hunger, and 積/积 sum, all of which have different meanings. In speech, the correct glyphing of a mono-syllable to its correct meaning cannot be determined other than through a spoken context and/or through its relations with other morphemes.

Take this example, the phonetic word gongjī may be transcribed as either 公鸡 "rooster" or 攻击 "(to) attack". The first is a noun; the second generally a verb. In speech this is made clear through context:

• 他家里养了只公鸡

“He has/rears a rooster at home.”

• 请不要攻击其他网友.

“Please do not (verbally) attack fellow Netizens.”

In writing the situation is much less complex, since each character, even when pronounced identically, can be easily differentiated by its unique phonetically independent morpheme meaning. (See Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den for a famous example) For this reason, it is common for Chinese speakers to put characters in context as a natural part of elucidating or disambiguating conversation. Native speakers may state which words or phrases their names are found in, for convenience of writing: 名字叫嘉英，嘉陵江的嘉，英國的英 Míngzi jiào Jiāyīng, Jiālíngjiāng de jiā, Yīngguó de yīng "My name is Jiāyīng, the Jia of Jialing River and the Ying in England."

The problem of homophones and homonyms exists but is less severe in southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Hakka, which preserved more of the rimes of Middle Chinese and have more tones. The previous examples of jī, for instance, for "stimulated", "chicken", and "machine", have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using jyutping): gik1, gai1, and gei1, respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multi-syllabic words.

Vocabulary

The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 20,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are now commonly in use. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, an all-inclusive compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The Zhonghua Zihai 中华字海 (1994) contains 85568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants.

The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volumed Hanyu Da Cidian 汉语大词典, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters, and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters , including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms.

The latest 2007 5th edition of Xiandai Haiyu Cidian 现代汉语词典, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in Mainland China, has 65, 000 entries and defines 11, 000 head characters.

New words

Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a sizeable amount of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include 葡萄 "grape," 石榴 "pomegranate" and 狮子/獅子 "lion." Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 佛 "Buddha" and 菩萨/菩薩 "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 哥哥 "elder brother" and 胡同 "hutong." Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 葡萄 "grape" (pútáo in Mandarin) generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pāli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵笆 or 酪 "cheese" or "yoghurt", but from exactly which Altaic source is not always entirely clear.

Modern borrowings and loanwords

Foreign words continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes 以色列 (pinyin: yǐsèliè), Paris 巴黎. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙發 shāfā "sofa," 马达/馬達 mǎdá "motor," 幽默 yōumò "humour," 逻辑/邏輯 luójí "logic," 时髦/時髦 shímáo "smart, fashionable" and 歇斯底里 xiēsīdǐlǐ "hysterics." The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghainese dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, 沙发/沙發 and 马达/馬達 in Shanghainese actually sound more like the English "sofa" and "motor."

Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions, since they are easer to remember. Entirely new characters are almost never coined except for newly discovered chemical elements. For example, the word telephone was loaned phonetically as 德律风/德律風 (Shanghainese: télífon [təlɪfoŋ], Standard Mandarin: délǜfēng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese 电话/電話 (diànhuà "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became much more prevalent. Other examples include 电视/電視 (diànshì "electric vision") for television, 电脑/電腦 (diànnǎo "electric brain") for computer; 手机/手機 (shǒujī "hand machine") for cellphone. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 汉堡包/漢堡包 (hànbǎo bāo, "Hamburg + bun") for hamburger.

Since the 20th century, another source was from Japan. Using existing kanji, the Japanese re-moulded European concepts and inventions into wasei-kango (和製漢語, literally Japanese-made kanji), and re-loaned many of these into modern Chinese. Examples include diànhuà (電話, denwa, "telephone"), shèhuì (社会, shakai, "society"), kēxué (科學, kagaku, "science") and chōuxiàng (抽象, chūshō, "abstract"). Indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this toing-and-froing process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese share a corpus linguistics of terms describing modern terminology. Taiwanese Chinese continues to be influenced by Japanese eg. 便当 “lunchbox or boxed lunch” and 料理 “prepared cuisine”, have passed into common currency.

Western foreign words have great influence on Chinese language since the 20th century, through transliterations. From French came 芭蕾 (ballet), 香槟 (champagne), via Italian 咖啡 (caffè). The English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed .eg. the above-mentioned 沙發 shāfā "sofa", 幽默 yōumò "humour", and 高尔夫 "golf". Later US soft influences gave rise to 迪斯科 disco, 牛仔裤 jeans, 可乐 cola, 快餐 fast food and“迷你” minskirt. Contempory colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English like cartoon “卡通”基佬, 的士,巴士. With upsurge in the Internet’s popularity, there is a current vogue in China to coining English transliterations, eg. 粉丝, 黑客, 博客.

Learning Chinese

See also: Western study of the Chinese language

Since China’s economic and political rise in the late 20th century, standard Chinese has become an increasingly popular subject of study amongst the young in the Western world, as in the UK. [3]

In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (comparable to English's Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005, the number of candidates has risen sharply to 117,660. China's Ministry of Education estimates the worldwide learners presently to be 30 million people, counting those undertaking studies in universities, community colleges, training courses and private tuitions.[4]

Despite Chinese’s reputation as a difficult non-native language, the development of Hanyu Pinyin and simplified Chinese characters has made it vastly easier for non-Chinese to begin to learn the language.

• The first step in many Chinese classes is to teach students how to use pinyin (how to read and pronounce it).
• Listening to a native speaker pronouncing Chinese will help. It will not take too much effort, since pronunciation is always regular.
• Characters are generally the most difficult aspect facing new learners, taking most of their time
• In compensation, Chinese grammar is considerably easier than that of many other languages.

See also

• Chinese characters
• Chinese honorifics
• Chinese measure word
• Chinese number gestures
• Chinese numerals
• Four-character idiom
• Han unification
• Haner language
• HSK test
• Languages of China
• Nü shu

References

• DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.
• Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X.
• Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29653-6.
• Qiu, Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.
• Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X.

External links

Dictionaries

• MDBG free online Chinese-English dictionary
• Chinese Characters Dictionary: supports Japanese, Korean, Cantonese, Hakka etc.
• Chinese - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition
• CEDICT Chinese-English Dictionary Project
• Stardict free (GPL) multilanguage dictionary including simplified/traditional Chinese for Unix (Linux, FreeBSD, etc.) and win32
• English-Chinese Translation Dictionary: Chinese-English-Chinese Online Dictionary (Taiwan-based; simplified characters not recognised)
• CantoDict: Cantonese-English Dictionary Project
• Collection of Chinese dictionaries

Learning

• Learn Chinese Free online Mandarin Chinese lessons with audio.
• Chinese Language Information Page A collection of Chinese language learning resources.
• Learn Chinese with Annotated News and Conversion Tools
• Chinese Learn Online Podcast lessons with Pinyin pronunciation guides.
• Learn to Speak Chinese Learn how to speak Mandarin Chinese online for free.
• Oneaday.org One Chinese idiom a day (simplified and traditional characters) with pinyin transliteration and English translation.
• Mandarin Tone Drill Testing your knowledge of Mandarin tones.
• Pinyin Practice Pinyin practice for Mandarin learners in all levels
• Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks: A large collection of Web resources by a professor of linguistics at Ohio State University
• Learn to Speak Chinese for Free
• Learn Chinese Tutorial at The Chinese Outpost
• Learning Chinese One Idiom at a Time: Chinese idioms in Simplified Chinese and Hanyu pinyin
• Sinoling.com: Chinese language resources
• Minmm.com: Chinese lessons
• Learn Chinese: Chinese lessons and vocabulary with audio
• Learning Chinese Flashcards: Free, non-commercial site providing Chinese character flashcards to download and print.
• 4 words of Chinese every day
• Learn Chinese A general and free resource for Chinese students. Contains lessons, vocabulary lists, grammar, games, and articles.
• chinese-tools.com
• Learning Chinese is Hard
• Chinese Character of the Day Learn to Read Chinese one word at a time.