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Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. Eyewitnesses established oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesara, and Ephesus, each gradually developing distinct characteristics. When eyewitnesses began to die off, Christians recorded the sayings in writing. The hypothetical Q document is perhaps the first such record, written circa 50. Paul of Tarsus also began writing letters to various churches, called "epistles" that would later be considered scripture. The gospel of Mark was written c. 65-70, possibly motivated by the Jewish revolt against Rome. The gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The gospel of Luke was written c.85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos), who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of Saint John.<ref>[[Stephen L Harris|Harris]] (1985). Pp 263-268.</ref>
Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. Eyewitnesses established oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesara, and Ephesus, each gradually developing distinct characteristics. When eyewitnesses began to die off, Christians recorded the sayings in writing. The hypothetical Q document is perhaps the first such record, written circa 50. Paul of Tarsus also began writing letters to various churches, called "epistles" that would later be considered scripture. The gospel of Mark was written c. 65-70, possibly motivated by the Jewish revolt against Rome. The gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The gospel of Luke was written c.85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos), who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of Saint John.<ref>[[Stephen L Harris|Harris]] (1985). Pp 263-268.</ref>


Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the third century a shift aware from [[continuing revelation|direct revelation]] as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the [[Septuagint]]. Beyond the Torah and some of the earliest prophetic works, there was no universal agreement to a [[Biblical canon|canon]], but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, leading initially to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic movement]].<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref>
Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from [[continuing revelation|direct revelation]] as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the [[Septuagint]]. Beyond the Torah and some of the earliest prophetic works, there was no universal agreement to a [[Biblical canon|canon]], but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, leading initially to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic movement]].<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref>


Regardless, throughout the [[Jewish diaspora]] newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known apostles, such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]], were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as [[I Clement]] and the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for [[oral tradition]] as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as [[Papias]].<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref>
Regardless, throughout the [[Jewish diaspora]] newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known apostles, such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]], were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as [[I Clement]] and the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for [[oral tradition]] as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as [[Papias]].<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref>

Revision as of 18:24, 26 July 2007

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The term Early Christianity here refers to Christianity of the period after the Death of Jesus in the early 30s and before the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The term is sometimes used in a more narrow sense of just the very first followers (disciples) of Jesus of Nazareth and the faith as preached and practiced by the Twelve Apostles, their contemporaries, and their immediate successors, also called the Apostolic Age.

Early Christians split off definitively from Rabbinic Judaism, wrote the books that would become the New Testament, developed the first Biblical canons, defended Christian beliefs against criticism by other Roman religions, survived various persecutions, denounced Christian heresies, and developed church hierarchy. What started as a religious movement within Second Temple Judaism became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine the Great. The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the first Seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787).

Origin of Christianity as a distinct religion

The followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic Jewish sect during the late Second Temple period of the 1st century. Some groups that followed Jesus were stricly Jewish, such as the Ebionites, and the church leaders in Jerusalem were Jewish. Paul of Tarsus, however, had great success proselyting among the Gentiles, and persuaded the leaders of the Jerusalem Church to allow Gentile converts not to follow Jewish law. Jews who did not convert and the growing Christian community became more hostile toward each other. After the destruction of the Temple in 70, Jerusalem ceased to be the center of the Christian church and of Jewish religious life. Rabbinic Judaism developed as mainstream Jewish practice. Christianity established itself as a Gentile religion that spanned the Roman Empire and beyond.

Jewish sect

Early Christianity was an apocalyptic Jewish sect. The book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily Temple attendance and traditional Jewish home prayer. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as fasting, reverence for the Torah and observance of Jewish holy days. The earliest form of Jesus's religion is best understood as a Jewish apocalyptic sect. However, there was great diversity in local variations, as each succeeded or failed in different ways. Regardless, Jesus was a pious Jew, worshiping the Jewish God, preaching interpretations of Jewish law and accepted as the Jewish Messiah by his disciples. Nearly all scholars agree that regardless of how one interprets the mission of Jesus, that he must be understood in context as a first century Palestinian Jew.[1][2]

Nazarenes, who were possibly the later group called Ebionites, were the earliest followers of Jesus and were an important part of Palestinian Jewish society during the mid to late first century. This movement was centered around Palestine and led by James the Just. They held fiercely to the Torah and Jewish law. However, they did accept converts based on a version of the Noachide laws (Acts 15 & Acts 21). Nazarene is one of the earliest names for the group, as evidenced in Acts 24:5 where Paul is called the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes". "The Way" was the name preferred by the group itself. The Greek word "Christian" was an attempt to translate Nazarene. Christian in essence means a "Messianist".[3]

The Essenes and early Christians had a number of similar beliefs. The Essences practice baptism, believed in a new covenant, were messianic and believed themselves a remnant of the faithful preparing the way for the reign of God's glory. They called their group by names that would later be used by Christians, such as the Way and the Saints. Jesus preached a number of doctrines similar to Essene Halacha. They followed a charismatic leader who was opposed and possibly killed at the instigation of the Pharisees. John the Baptist seems to have risen out of this context.[4]

Early leaders

St. Paul, by El Greco

The relatives of Jesus lived in Nazareth since the first century. Some of them were prominent early Christians. Among those named in the New Testament are his mother and four of his brothers: James, Simeon, Joseph and Jude. Some of the family were opposed to the mission and religion of Jesus. The relatives of Jesus were accorded a special position within the early church, as displayed by the leadership of James in Jerusalem.[5]

According to 19th century German theologian F. C. Baur early Christianity was dominated by the conflict between a law observant Peter and Paul who advocated freedom from the law. Later findings contradicted this theory. The allegedly continuous conflict was not supported by the available evidence. However, theological conflict between Paul and Peter is recorded in the New Testament and was widely discussed in the early church. Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in Galatians was aimed at Peter, James and John, as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith.[6][7]

Split with Judaism

See also: Schisms among the Jews and List of events in early Christianity

There was a slowly growing chasm between Christians and Jews, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took centuries for a complete break to manifest. However, certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism. The Council of Jamnia circa 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular. However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.[8][9][10]

Coin of Nerva "The blackmail of the Jewish tax lifted"

During the late first century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of Roman law, worked out in compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Observant Jews had special rights, including the privilege of abstaining from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Circa 98 the emperor Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. This opened the way to Christians being persecuted for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the state pantheon. It is notable that from c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.[11][12][13]

The Bar Kokhba Revolt created a large rift between Judaism and Jewish Christians. Simon bar Kokhba was recognized as the Jewish Messiah by Rabbi Akiva. The Christians, believing Jesus to be their Messiah, reject Bar Kokhba and refused to join the revolt. The revolution turned against the Jewish Christians and some were killed. The failure of the revolt had serious consequences. Jews and Jewish Christians were barred entry into Jerusalem, leaving the church in Jerusalem without a Jewish identity. Many historians believe the revolt was the most notable event in the split between Judaism and Christianity.[14][15]

Beliefs

Early Christian beliefs were based on the apostolic tradition (kerygma), oral tradition and scriptures.

Main articles of belief

Early Christians reportedly believed in five key elements. These were belief in the Lord God and in the Son, scriptural discipline, baptism, common services with the eucharist, and assurance in the nearness of "Christ's glorious kingdom".[16]

Christology

Logos

Main article: Logos

Early Christians identified Jesus Christ as Logos, most famously in the gospel of John. The term "Logos" was used in Greek philosophy and in Jewish religious writing (see Philo)to mean the ultimate ordering principle of the universe. Those who rejected the identification of Christ with the Logos, as well as the gospel of John, were called Alogi (see also Monarchianism).[17][18] Origen, among others, distinguished the Logos from God.[19]

Trinity

Main article: Trinitarianism

The Trinity does not explicitly appear in the New Testament. However, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were associated and interpolated in various New Testament passages.[20] The Great Commission possibly reflects the baptismal practice at Matthew's time or later if this line is interpolated, as commonly believed by scholars. Aside from this verse, Matthew does not equate Jesus with God, though he indicates a special relationship between them.[21] One of the few elements virtually universal among diverse early Christians was the understanding that Jesus the Son was uniquely united with God the Father.[22]

According to the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the trinity was revealed to the disciples by revelation and in religious visions called theoria[23] during the Theophany and the Transfiguration of Jesus called the Tabor Light or uncreated light.

The close of the early Christian era is defined as the Council of Nicea, which gave the trinity its dogmatic form. But the term "trinity" and concepts related to the trinity existed earlier in the church. The phrase "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" became common, especially at baptism. Another trinitarian formula, "Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," was common even before the Arian controversy. However, this earlier formula does not express the co-equality of the three persons.[24]

The Greek philosophical term homoousia (literally translated "same substance" and applied to the Father and the Son), was later adopted by Trinitarianism. However, it also appears in the early Christian era outside of a Trinitarian context, as used by Origen, Paul of Samosata, and Alexander of Alexandria. Various Christian writings refer to Jesus as a man and as God, but the common Trinity formulation does not appear until soon after the First Council of Nicaea.

Eschatology

Kingdom of God

Early Christians looked forward to the return of Jesus as judge of the world, to the resurrection of the dead, and to eternal life in a perfected world. The general term for this set of beliefs is parousia (or Second Coming). Apologists defended the resurrection of the dead against pagan philosophers, who considered the soul worthy of perfection but not the body. Origen, however, promoted a Platonic viewpoint and denied the physical resurrection.

Early Christians commonly believed that Christ would rule a thousand-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection, (a belief known as chiliasm or premillenialism).[25] Early Christians believed that the saved received various divine rewards corresponding to their holiness. While all the saved would gain eternal life in Christ, not all of them would live in heaven.

Cosmology

Early Christians understood "Heaven" to be literally the divine world above the sky. They sometimes described the souls of the dead waiting underground for the general resurrection. They described gehenna (roughly, hell) as a subterranean fire. The belief that souls of the dead occupied some physical place below heaven was nearly universal in the Roman Empire.

Purgatory

The Roman Catholic Church taught that souls of the saved "are purified by the fire of purgatory."[26] In fact, "the first Christian communities and the whole Church of the early centuries down to the time of the catacombs was one grand purgatorial society."[27]

The Pistis Sophia was the most important work of Christian Gnosticism and gives the first detailed description of the idea of purgatory. These concepts in turn were adopted by the early church fathers, especially those associated with North Africa where Christian Gnosticism was strongest.

Hades

The Greek word "Hades" is used repeatedly in the New Testament to refer to the abode of the dead, where all (or almost all) souls are confined at least until the resurrection, either in comfort or in torment. The parable of the rich man and poor Lazarus (Luke 16:19–31 speaks of it being divided by a great gulf into a place of torment by flame and a place of comfort called the bosom of Abraham. The word was used to translate the Hebrew word "sheol", as in the Psalm quoted in Acts 2:27–31 and the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible (the Septuagint). Early Church Fathers, such as Tertullian and Hippolytus, continued to use the term, or the Latin equivalent, infernus ("underworld").[citation needed]

Angels and Satan

Early Christians understood angels to be active in supporting the church and Satan to be actively opposed to it. Hippolytus, for example, recounts angels physically scourging the first antipope to force him to repent.[28] [29] Christian writers commonly saw Satan as the author of heresies, and he is identified as the father of the Jews or of practicing sinners in the Gospel of John.[citation needed]

The word "angel" is derived from Greek Template:Polytonic, the basic meaning of which is "messenger". Visitations from the "angel of the LORD" in the Old Testament are taken by many to be pre-Incarnation manifestations of Christ.[30] [31] [32] Accordingly, Justin Martyr spoke of Christ as "King, and Priest, and God, and Lord, and angel, and man, and captain, and stone, and a Son born, and first made subject to suffering, then returning to heaven, and again coming with glory, and He is preached as having the everlasting kingdom".[33] He interpreted as Christ the Angel who spoke with Abraham in Genesis 18, and argued for the divinity of Christ. [34]

Orthodoxy and heterodoxy

Traditionally, orthodoxy and heresy have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "heterodox", or heretical. This view was dominant until the publication of Walter Bauer's Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum in 1934. Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the early church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. Edessa and Egypt are presented as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the second century. The theological thought of the Orient at the time would later be labeled "heresy". The response by modern scholars has been mixed. Some scholars clearly support Bauer's conclusions and others express concerns about his possible bias. More moderate responses have become more prominent and Bauer's theory is generally accepted. However, modern scholars have critiqued and updated Bauer's model.[35]

Heresies

The early years of Christianity saw various different and conflicting beliefs. Bart D. Ehrman states that from a historian's viewpoint it was striking in how all of the different beliefs systems traced their lineage back to the original apostles.[36]

Adoptionism

Main article: Adoptionism

Many second century Christians believed that Jesus had been a man whom God had adopted as the Son.[37] This outlook appears in The Shepherd of Hermas and, according to some scholars, in Mark and in the epistles of Paul. This Christology conflicted directly with Trinitarian Christology.

Gnosticism

Main articles: Gnosticism and Valentinius

Early in the common era, several distinct religious sects, some of them Christian, adhered to an array of beliefs that would later be termed Gnostic. The most successful Christian Gnostic was the priest Valentinus (c. 100 - c. 160), who founded a Gnostic church and developed an elaborate cosmology. Gnostics considered the material world to be a prison created by a fallen or evil spirit, the god of the material world (called the demiurge). Gnostics identified the God of the Hebrew Bible as this demiurge. Secret knowledge (gnosis) was said to liberate one's soul to return to the true God in the realm of light. Valentinus and other Christian gnostics identified Jesus as the Savior, a spirit sent from the true God into the material world to liberate the souls trapped there.

While some elements that appear to be Gnostic are found in early Christian writing, orthodox Christianity labeled Gnosticism a heresy and rejected its dualistic cosmology and its vilification of the material world and the creator of the material. Gnosticism's stance was that the God of the Old Testament was not the true God. It was considered to be the demiurge) and either fallen, as taught by Valentinus (c. 100 - c. 160) or evil, as taught by the Sethians and Ophites.

The Gospel of John, according to Stephen L Harris, both includes Gnostic elements and refutes Gnostic beliefs, presenting a dualistic universe of light and dark, spirit and matter, good and evil, much like the Gnostic accounts, but instead of escaping the material world, Jesus bridges the spiritual and physical worlds.[38] According to Raymond E. Brown, it was contrary to the author's intention that some elements were interpreted in more or less Gnostic ways that the Johannine epistles (1-3 John) felt it necessary to correct.[39]

The Gospel of Thomas has some Gnostic elements but lacks the full Gnostic cosmology. The scene in John in which "doubting Thomas" ascertains that the resurrected Jesus is physical refutes the Gnostic idea that Jesus returned to spirit form after death. The written gospel draws on an earlier oral tradition associated with Thomas. Some scholars argue that the Gospel of John was meant to oppose the beliefs of that community.[40]

Some believe that there were at least three distinct divisions within the Christian movement of the 1st century: the Jewish Christians (led by the Apostle James the Just, with Jesus's disciples, and their followers), Pauline Christians (followers of Paul of Tarsus) and Gnostic Christians.[citation needed] Others believe that Gnostic Christianity was a later development, some time around the middle or late second century, around the time of Valentinus.[41] Gnosticism was in turn made up of many smaller groups, some of which did not claim any connection to Jesus Christ. In Mandaeist Gnosticism Jesus is refer to as a liar and false prophet.[citation needed] A modern view has argued that Marcionism is mistakenly reckoned among the Gnostics, and really represents a fourth interpretation of the significance of Jesus.[42] Gnostics freely exchanged concepts and texts. It is considered likely that Valentinius was influenced by previous concepts such as Sophia, as much as he influenced others.

Marcionism

Main articles: Marcion and Marcionism

In 144, the Church in Rome expelled Marcion of Sinope as a heretic. He thereupon set up his own separate ecclesiastical organization, later called Marcionism. Like the Gnostics, he promoted dualism. Unlike the Gnostics, however, he founded his beliefs not on secret knowledge (gnosis) but on the vast difference between what he saw as the "evil" deity of the Old Testament and the God of love of the New, on which he expounded in his Antithesis. Consequently, Marcionists were vehemently anti-Judaism in their beliefs. They rejected The Hebrew Gospel (see also Gospel of the Hebrews) and all the other Gospels with the exception of an early version of the Gospel of Luke, often called the Gospel of Marcion.

From the perspectives of Tertullian and Epiphanius (when the four gospels had largely canonical status, perhaps in reaction to the challenge created by Marcion), it appeared that Marcion rejected the non-Lukan gospels, however, in Marcion's time, it may be that the only gospel he was familiar with from Pontus was the gospel that would later be called Luke. It is also possible that Marcion's gospel was actually modified by his critics to become the gospel we know today as Luke, rather than the story from his critics that he changed a canonical gospel to get his version. For example: compare Luke 5:39 to 5:36–38; did Marcion delete 5:39 from his Gospel or was it added later to counteract a Marcionist interpretation of 5:36-38? See also New Wine into Old Wineskins. One must keep in mind that we only know of Marcion through his critics and they considered him a major threat to the form of Christianity that they knew. John Knox (the modern writer, not to be confused with John Knox the Protestant Reformer) in Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon (ISBN 0-404-16183-9) was the first to propose that Marcion's Gospel may have preceded Luke's Gospel and Acts.[43]

Marcion argued that Christianity should be solely based on Christian Love. He went so far as to say that Jesus’ mission was to overthrow Demiurge -- the fickle, cruel, despotic God of the Old Testament -- and replace Him with the Supreme God of Love whom Jesus came to reveal. Marcion was labeled a gnostic by Irenaeus. Irenaeus' labeled Marcion this because of Marcion expressing this core gnostic belief, that the creator God of the Jews and the Old Testament was the devil. This position, he said, was supported by the ten Epistles of Paul that Marcion also accepted. His writing had a profound effect upon the development of Christianity and the canon.[citation needed]

Montanism

Main article: Montanism

In the 2nd century, Montanism spread across the Roman Empire. It even boasted Tertullian as a convert. The sect's ecstasy, speaking in tongues, and other details are similar to those found in Pentecostalism.

Religious writing

See also: List of early Christian writers and List of early Christian texts of disputed authorship

Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. Eyewitnesses established oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesara, and Ephesus, each gradually developing distinct characteristics. When eyewitnesses began to die off, Christians recorded the sayings in writing. The hypothetical Q document is perhaps the first such record, written circa 50. Paul of Tarsus also began writing letters to various churches, called "epistles" that would later be considered scripture. The gospel of Mark was written c. 65-70, possibly motivated by the Jewish revolt against Rome. The gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The gospel of Luke was written c.85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos), who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of Saint John.[44]

Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the Septuagint. Beyond the Torah and some of the earliest prophetic works, there was no universal agreement to a canon, but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, leading initially to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement.[45]

Regardless, throughout the Jewish diaspora newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known apostles, such as the Gospel of Thomas, were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as I Clement and the Epistle of Barnabas, were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias.[46]

The earliest Christian writings after the New Testament are a group of letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. These include the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistles of Clement, as well as the Didache. Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. Following this period, the Apologists became prominent in the late second century. This includes such notable figures as Tatian, Justin and Clement of Alexandria. They debated with prevalent philosophers of their day, defending and arguing for Christianity. They focused mainly on monotheism and their harshest words were used for ancient mythologies.[47]

Practices

From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs and observances. Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices.

Worship

In his First Apology, a letter of defense written to Roman emperor, Antonius Pius, 161-180, Justin described simple Christian worship services and practices, explaining:

...after we have thus washed him who has been convinced (converted to Christianity) and has assented to our teaching, we bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized person, ...so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. ... And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion....And this food is called among us Eucharistia or [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. ... we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone.[48]

Church Community

Christian groups were first organized loosely, with various members contributing according to their various gifts. By the end of the era, Christianity had an orthodox church hierarchy, led by five patriarchs and hundreds of other bishops.

Christians proclaimed a God of love who enjoined them to share a higher love with one another. They interpreted the Old Testament as revealing primarily a God of justice, whereas the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul and the Gospel of John, revealed a more loving God. Parallels are found in Pharisaic and Rabbinic Judaism. Christians also believed the impersonal Unknown God of the Greeks was revealed in the Christian God (Acts 17:22–33). Early Christian communities welcomed everyone, including slaves and women, who were generally shunned in Greco-Roman culture, but there were other exceptions, such as Epicurianism.

Monasticism

Christian monasticism started in Egypt. The first monks were hermits (eremetic monks). By the end of the early Christian era, Saint Pachomius was organizing his followers into a community and founding the tradition of monasticism in community (cenobitic monks).

Organization

Despite Ignatius' rejection of Judaizing, see above, Christianity continued many of the patterns of Judaism, adapting to Christian use synagogue liturgical worship, prayer, use of Sacred Scripture, a priesthood, a religious calendar commemorating on certain days each year certain events and/or beliefs, use of music in worship, giving material support to the religious leadership, and practices such as fasting and almsgiving and baptism.

Christians adopted as their Bible the Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures known as the Septuagint and later also canonized the books of the New Testament. There are however many phrases which appear to be quotations and other statements of fact, in the early church fathers, which cannot be found in the Bible as we know it. For example in Clement's First Letter he states that Paul "reached the limits of the West", and also appears to quote a variant form of Ezek 33.

A Church hierarchy seems to have been in development at latest by the time of the writing of the Pastoral Epistles in the latter half of the first century, and these structures were certainly formalized well before the end of the Early Christian period, which concluded with the legalization of Christianity in 313 and the holding of the First Council of Nicea in 325.

The Didache, which has been variously dated from 50 to 120, speaks of "appointing for yourself bishops and deacons" and also speaks about teachers and prophets and false prophets.

By the end of the early Christian period, the church of the Roman Empire was centered on four patriarchates. Three were Greek-speaking: Constantinople (Istanbul), Alexandria, and Antioch. The fourth, Rome, featured theological writers in both Greek and (since Tertullian) Latin. Rome was accorded primacy of honor based on apostolic succession from Saint Peter, see also Primacy of Simon Peter. This divide between Greek and Latin would, in the 1054, lead to the East-West Schism.

Interaction with Greco-Roman and Jewish cultures

Main article: Pagan influences on Christianity

The land in which Christianity began and through which it spread had been both Hellenized (after Alexander the Great) and Romanized (with the rise of the Roman Empire). Early church writings were in Greek, even those originating in Rome, as Greek was the international language, lingua franca, of the day (similar to English in the early 21st century). It is an interesting feature of the Christian scriptures, that rather than being transmitted in the native language of their culture of origin, they appear to have been transmitted in the lingua franca the day.

Languages often presume features of the culture of their native speakers. The Greek word psyche, for instance, used for the concept of an immortal persona or soul, was often understood in Greek writers as immaterial. The writers of the New Testament were willing to use this pagan spiritual term. In fact, the same word had already been used by the Jewish translators of the Old Testament (Septuagint), as an approximate equivalent for the Hebrew nephesh. It is significant because the biblical concepts of both soul and immortality are usually understood as embodied from their contexts. Both Judaism and Christianity believe in bodily resurrection. Some rabbinic commentators expressed disapproval of the Septuagint, because they felt theological precision was lost in translation. Parallels to this exist in Christian history, where Greek, Latin or 16th century English are felt to be "proper" expressions of the scriptures, or of liturgy.

In early Christianity, transmission in the common language (Koine Greek) was considered appropriate. However, regarding other issues, like polytheism, Christianity stood with Judaism against the background culture, both were staunchly monotheistic. Early Christianity thus found itself, like Judaism before it, in conflict with the prevailing Greco-Roman culture, where polytheistic theology was not simply an abstraction, but influenced social customs at many levels. Banquets in honour of gods were a common occurrence, legal codes and international diplomacy depended on gods as witnesses and the ultimate court of appeal on justice. Christians were considered atheists, because they refused to honour the pagan gods.[49] In some cases, public opinion was against Christianity as antisocial (refusing to eat at pagan banquets) and immoral (unaccountable to the moral ethos couched in polytheistic terms). Tacitus recorded some of his impressions in 109: "a class hated for their abominations", "a most mischievous superstition", guilty of "hatred against mankind".[50] Christians were also accused of "cannibalism" (perhaps a reference to communion) and "incest" (perhaps a reference to the biblical prohibition of marriage outside the faith).

Modern scholars continue to debate the degrees of influence on early Christian practices by the prevalent non-Christian Greco-Roman cultures of the day. The ancient title of Pontifex Maximus was first assumed by Pope Damasus I.[51] [52] Today, Pontifiex Maximus is carved inside the nave of the sacristy of Saint Peter's Basilica church in Rome. Likewise, the use of incense in Jewish temple worship and ceremonies found its way into the early Christian liturgies.[citation needed]

Persecution

See also: Persecution of early Christians by the Jews and Persecution of early Christians by the Romans

Christians were persecuted on an irregular basis in Rome. The earliest note Roman authorities made of the new religion was in the reign of Claudius, when there was a disturbance "stirred up by Chrestus" and the "Jews" were expelled from Rome. The Christians were blamed by Nero as a scapegoat for the Great Fire of Rome in 64. He probably chose them as a new and secretive cult, likely to be mistrusted by the people. The Roman historian Tacitus called Christianity a "deadly superstition". Yet, he also notes that the persecution of the Christians under Nero was so harsh, the inhabitants of Rome resented Nero's cruelty.[53][54]

Christians also suffered persecutions under the reigns of Domitian and Trajan. Persecutions continued intermittently through the second century. Even during periods between organized persecutions, Christians were still sporadically subject to trial and condemnation. After the late second century relative calm held in Rome. The reign of the Severi emperors is particularly noted as not only tolerant of the various religions in Rome, but actively interested in them. Alexander Severi is said to have had a shrine in his palace with an icon of Christ.[55]

Legacy

In the fourth century, Constantine converted to Christianity and established it as the favored religion of the empire. He convened the first of seven ecumenical councils at Nicea, where the church dogmatically defined the Trinity. The next six ecumenical councils further defined the Trinity, affirmed Mary as the Mother of God, anathematized various heresies, and forbade religious statuary. Some early Christian writing, such as certain tenets of Origen's, was declared heretical.

In modern times, several Christian denominations intentionally emulate early Christian practices in place of church traditions, such as believer's baptism. Restorationist sects consider themselves to be restoring the authentic practices of the early Christian era, before the so-called "Great Apostasy."

Since the 19th century, historians have learned much more about the early Christian community. Major texts, such as the Didache and the Gospel of Thomas, have been discovered in the last 200 years.

References

  • Berard, Wayne Daniel. When Christians Were Jews (That Is, Now). Cowley Publications (2006). ISBN 1561012807.
  • Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0195118758.
  • Dunn, James D.G. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135. Pp 33-34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0802844987.
  • Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 0060738170.
  • Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Mayfield (1985). ISBN 087484696X.
  • Hunt, Emily Jane. Christianity in the Second Century: The Case of Tatian. Routledge (2003). ISBN 0415304059.
  • Keck, Leander E. Paul and His Letters. Fortress Press (1988). ISBN 0800623401.
  • Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0226653714.
  • Richardson, Cyril Charles. Early Christian Fathers. Westminster John Knox Press (1953). ISBN 0664227473.
  • Stambaugh, John E. & Balch, David L. The New Testament in Its Social Environment. John Knox Press (1986). ISBN 0664250122.
  • Tabor, James D. "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites", The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
  • Taylor, Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0198147856.
  • White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0060526556.
  • Wright, N.T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0800626818.
  • Wylen, Stephen M. The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press (1995). ISBN 0809136104.

Footnotes

  1. ^ White (2004). Pp 127-128.
  2. ^ Ehrman (2005). Pg 187.
  3. ^ Tabor (1998).
  4. ^ Tabor (1998).
  5. ^ Taylor (1993). Pg 224.
  6. ^ Keck (1988).
  7. ^ Pelikan (1975). Pg. 113.
  8. ^ Wylan (1995). Pg 190.
  9. ^ Berard (2006). Pp 112-113.
  10. ^ Wright (1992). Pp 164-165.
  11. ^ Wylan (1995). Pp 190-192.
  12. ^ Dunn (1999). Pp 33-34.
  13. ^ Boatwright (2004). Pg 426.
  14. ^ Wylan (1995). Pp 190-192.
  15. ^ Hunt (2003). Pp 6-7.
  16. ^ History of Dogma I.III.3, Adolf von Harnack. "The main articles of Christianity were (1) belief in God the despótēs [lord], and in the Son in virtue of proofs from prophecy, and the teaching of the Lord as attested by the Apostles; (2) discipline according to the standard of the words of the Lord; (3) baptism; (4) the common offering of prayer, culminating in the Lord’s Supper and the holy meal; (5) the sure hope of the nearness of Christ’s glorious kingdom."
  17. ^ "Alogi or Alogoi", Early Church .org.uk.
  18. ^ "Alogi", Francis P. Havey, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume I, 1907.
  19. ^ "ORIGEN (ORIGENES ADAMANTIUS) C. 182–C. 251", Philip Schaff, The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge Vol. VIII. 'Origen distinctly emphasized the independence of the Logos as well as the distinction from the being and substance of God. The term "of the same substance with the Father " was not employed. He is merely an image, a reflex not to be compared with God; as one among other "gods," of course first in rank.'
  20. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, "Trinity".
  21. ^ The Oxford Companion of the Bible, "Trinity".
  22. ^ History of Dogma II.III.2, Adolf von Harnack. 'Jesus Christ, who is the Saviour. . . sent by God "in these last days," and who stands with God himself in a union special and unique.'
  23. ^ "[http://www.orthodoxfaith.com/spirituality_difference.html The Difference Between Orthodox Spirituality and Other Confessions]", Metropolitan Hierotheos Vlachos, OrthodoxFaith.com 2003. "Thus the disciples of Christ acquired the knowledge of the Triune God in theoria (vision of God) and by revelation. It was revealed to them that God is one essence in three hypostases."
  24. ^ "The Blessed Trinity", G.H.Joyce, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume XV, 1912.
  25. ^ History of the Christian Church] Vol. 2 p.381, Philip Schaff, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, n.d.). "The most striking point in the eschatology of the ante-Nicene age is the prominent chiliasm, or millenarianism, that is the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgement. It was indeed not the doctrine of the church embodied in any creed or form of devotion, but a widely current opinion of distinguished teachers, such as Barnabas, Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Methodius, and Lactantius, while Caius, Origen, Dionysius the Great, Eusebius (as afterwards Jerome and Augustin) opposed it."
  26. ^ The Orthodox Response to the Latin Doctrine of Purgatory, Orthodox Christian Information Center.
  27. ^ "Purgatorial Societies", Joseph Hilgers, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume XII, 1911.
  28. ^ Church History 5.28.7-12, Eusebius.
  29. ^ "Monarchians", John Chapman, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume X, 1911.
  30. ^ "Who is the angel of the Lord?", gotQuestions?.org.
  31. ^ "An Angel You Ought to Know", Loren Jacobs, Jews for Jesus.
  32. ^ "The Angel of the Lord: Who Is He?", Biblical Artefacts And Studies.
  33. ^ Dialogue with Trypho 34, Justin Martyr.
  34. ^ For a detailed study of the significance Justin saw in the title of "Angel" given to the Messiah in the Septuagint version of Isaiah 9:6, the then most widely known version of that text, see "Christ As Angel: The Reclamation Of A Primitive Title", Günther Juncker, Trinity Journal 15:2 (Fall 1994): 221–250.
  35. ^ Hunt (2003). Pp 10-11.
  36. ^ Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew, Bart D. Ehrman, Oxford University Press (2005). ISBN:978-0-19-514183-2.
  37. ^ History of Dogma II.III.3, Adolf von Harnack. "Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)."
  38. ^ Understanding the Bible, Stephen L Harris. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
  39. ^ The Community of the Beloved Disciple, Raymond E. Brown, Paulist Press. (French translation: La communauté du disciple bien-aimé Les Éditions du Cerf, Paris 1983 ISBN 2-204-02000-1)
  40. ^ Beyond Belief,Elaine Pagels, 2003.
  41. ^ No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins, Carl B. Smith, Hendrickson Publishers (September 2004). ISBN-13: 978-1565639447
  42. ^ "MARCION", Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 ed., Volume VI7, p. 693.
  43. ^ "Marcion and Marcionite Gnosticism", Cky J. Carrigan, Ph.D., On Truth, November 1996.
  44. ^ Harris (1985). Pp 263-268.
  45. ^ White (2004). Pp 446-447.
  46. ^ White (2004). Pp 446-447.
  47. ^ Richardson (1953). Pp 16-17.
  48. ^ The First Apology of Justin, Justin Martyr.
  49. ^ "Worship in the Early Church", Richard C. Leonard, Laudemont Ministries 1997.
  50. ^ Annals XV, 44, Tacitus.
  51. ^ "The Title Pontifex Maximus", Mark Bonocore, retrieved July 17, 2007.
  52. ^ "Papal Authority in the First Ecumenical Councils", Brian W. Harrison, Living Tradition: Organ of the Roman Theological Forum, retrieved July 17, 2007.
  53. ^ Stambaugh (1986). Pg 164-165.
  54. ^ Francis (1997). Pg 80.
  55. ^ Stambaugh (1986). Pg 165.

See also

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