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The '''Qur’ān''' <ref>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|Pronunciation]]: [{{IPA|[[voiceless uvular plosive|q]][[close back rounded vowel|u]][[alveolar trill|r]][[stress (linguistics)|ˈ]][[glottal stop|ʔ]][[open front unrounded vowel|a]][[vowel length|ː]][[alveolar nasal|n]]}}]<br />{{audio|Quran.ogg|Arabic pronunciation}}</ref> ({{lang-ar| القرآن }};''{{ArabDIN|al-ķur'ān}}'', literally "the recitation"; also sometimes [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Quran''', '''Koran''', or '''Alcoran''') is the central [[religious text]] of [[Islam]]. Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, consider the text in its original [[Arabic]] to be the literal word of [[Allah]]<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.023 Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24]</ref> revealed to [[Muhammad]] over a period of twenty-three years<ref>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,'' Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers, </ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.106 Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106]</ref>, and view the Qur'an as God's final revelation to humanity.<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/033.qmt.html#033.040 Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40]</ref><ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref>

Muslims regard the Qur'ān as the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with those revealed to [[Adam]] &mdash; regarded, in Islam, as the first [[prophet]] &mdash; and including the [[Suhuf-i-Ibrahim]] (''Scrolls of [[Abraham]]''/''[[Ibrahim]]''),<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/087.qmt.html#087.018 Qur'ān Chapter 87, Verses 18-19]</ref> the [[Tawrat]] ([[Torah]]),<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/003.qmt.html#003.003 Qur'ān, Chapter 3, Verse 3]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.044 Qur'ān, Chapter 5, Verse 44]</ref> the [[Zabur]] ([[Psalms]]),<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html#004.163 Qur'ān, Chapter 4, Verse 163]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.055 Qur'ān, Chapter 17, Verse 55]</ref> and the [[Injil]] ([[Gospel]])<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.046 Qur'ān, Chapter 5, Verse 46]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.110 Qur'ān, Chapter 5, Verse 110]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/057.qmt.html#057.027 Qur'ān, Chapter 57, Verse 27]</ref>. The aforementioned books are recognized in the Qur'ān, <ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/003.qmt.html#003.084 Qur'ān, Chapter 3, Verse 84]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html#004.136 Quran, Chapter 4, Verse 136]</ref> and the Qur'anic text assumes familiarity <ref>"The Qur'an assumes the reader to be familiar with the traditions of the ancestors since the age of the Patriarchs, not necessarily in the version of the "Children of Israel" as described in the Bible but also in the version of the "Children of Ismail" as it was alive orally, though interspersed with polytheist elements, at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (s). The term Jahiliya (ignorance) used for the pre-Islamic time does not mean that the Arabs were not familiar with their traditional roots but that their knowledge of ethical and spiritual values had been lost." ''Exegesis of Bible and Qur'an'', H. Krausen. http://www.geocities.com/athens/thebes/8206/hkrausen/exegesis.htm </ref> with many events from Jewish and Christian scriptures, retelling some of these events in distinctive ways, and referring obliquely to others. It rarely offers detailed accounts of historical events; the Qur'an's emphasis is typically on the moral significance of an event, rather than its narrative sequence.

The Qur'anic text itself proclaims a divine protection of its message: ''Surely We have revealed the Reminder and We will most surely be its guardian.'' <ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.009 Qur'ān, Chapter 15, Verse 9]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.046 Qur'ān Chapter 5, Verse 46]</ref>

The Qur'anic verses were originally memorized by Muhammad's companions as Muhammad recited them, with some being written down by one or more companions on whatever was at hand, from stones to pieces of bark. In the [[Sunni]] tradition, the collection of the Qur'ān compilation took place under the [[Caliph]] Abu Bakr, this task being led by [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] Al-Ansari. "The manuscript on which the Quran was collected, remained with Abu Bakr till Allah took him unto Him, and then with '[[Umar]] till Allah took him unto Him, and finally it remained with [[Hafsa bint Umar]] (Umar's daughter)."<ref> However, the Quran in a single manuscript form was only made during the reign of the Caliph Othman who ordered the production of several copies.[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/060.sbt.html#006.060.201 Sahih Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201]</ref>

==Etymology and meaning==
<!-- [[Image:Holy quran cover.gif|right|thumb|150 px|Cover ornamentation with ''Al-Qur'ān Al-Karīm'' calligraphy]] -->
The original usage of the word "''{{Semxlit|ķur`ān}}''" is in the Qur'an itself, where it occurs about 70 times assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (''{{Semxlit|[[masdar|maṣdar]]}}'') of the [[Arabic]] verb "''{{Semxlit|ķara`a}}''" (Arabic: قرأ), meaning "he read" or "he recited," and represents the [[Syriac]] equivalent "''{{Semxlit|ķeryānā}}''" - which refers to "scripture reading" or "lesson." While most Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is ''ķara`a'' itself.<ref name="EoI-Q">"Ķur'an, al-", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref> Among the earliest meanings of the word Qur'an is the "act of reciting", for example in a Qur'anic passage: "Ours is it to put it together and [Ours is] its ''ķur`ān''."<ref>Qur'an 75:17</ref> In other verses it refers to "an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]." In the large majority of contexts, usually with a [[definite article]] (''al-''), the word is referred to as the "revelation" (''tanzīl''), that which has been "sent down" at intervals.<ref>cf. Qur'an 20:2; 25:32</ref> Its [[liturgy|liturgical]] context is seen in a number of passages, for example:"So when ''al-ķur`ān'' is recited [by Muhammad], listen to it and keep silent."<ref>Qur'an 7:204</ref> The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the [[Tawrat|Torah]] and [[Injil|Gospel]].<ref>See:
*"Ķur'an, al-", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.
*Qur'an 9:111</ref>

The term also has closely related [[synonym]]s which are employed throughout the Qur'an. Each of the synonyms possess their own distinct meaning, but their use may converge with that of ''ķur`ān'' in certain contexts. Such terms include "''{{Semxlit|kitāb}}''" ("book"); "''{{Semxlit|[[ayah|āyah]]}}''" ("sign"); and "''{{Semxlit|[[surah|sūrah]]}}''" ("scripture"). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. Other related words are: "''{{Semxlit|dhikr}}''", meaning "remembrance," used to refer to the Qur'an in the sense of a reminder and warning; and "''{{Semxlit|hikma}}''", meaning "wisdom," sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.<ref name="EoI-Q" /><ref>According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word ''hikma'' "should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that Muhammad is to judge ( tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."</ref>

== Format==
{{main|Sura}}
[[Image:Fatiha.jpg|right|thumb|The first chapter of the Qur'an consisting of seven Ayat.]]
The Qur'an consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as ''[[surah]]s''. Each chapter possesses a title: usually a word mentioned within the chapter itself. Apart from the first chapter, the rest appear to be arranged roughly by size in descending order— although not consistently so. As such, the arrangement is not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each chapter commences with the ''[[bismillah ir rahman nir rahimm]]'',<ref>Arabic: {{lang|ar|بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم}}, transliterated as: ''{{ArabDIN|bismi-llāhi ar-raḥmāni ar-raḥīmi}}''.</ref> an Arabic phrase meaning ("In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful"). The exception is the 9th chapter, where there is no ''basmala'' recited.<ref>There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the basmala in the Qur'an, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba. cf. [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], "Kur`an, al-"</ref><ref>See:
*"Kur`an, al-", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''
*Allen (2000) p. 53</ref>

=== Literary structure===
Issa Boullata, professor of Arabic literature and Islamic studies at [[McGill University]], gives the following evaluation of the literary structure of the Qur'ān: <ref> Issa Boullata, ''Literary Structure of Qur'an'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], vol.3 p.192, 204 </ref>

<blockquote>The message of the Qur'an is couched in various literary structures, which are widely considered to be the most perfect written text in Arabic. Arabic grammars were written based upon the qur'anic language, and, by general consensus of Muslim rhetoricians, the qur'anic idiom is considered to be sublime... In conclusion, it can be said that the Qur'an utilizes a wide variety of literary devices to convey its message. In its original Arabic idiom, the individual components of the text — surahs and ayat — employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Whereas the scholars of Arabic are largely agreed that the Qur'an represents the standards by which other literary productions in Arabic are measured, believing Muslims maintain that the Qur'an is inimitable with respect to both content and style.</blockquote>

Richard Gottheil and Siegmund Fränkel in the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] write that the oldest portions of the Qur'an "reflect an extraordinary degree of excitement in their language—in their short, abrupt sentences and in their sudden transitions, but nonetheless they carefully maintain the rimed form, like the oracles and magic formulas of the pagan Arab priests". The later portions also preserve this form but also "in some of which the movement is calm and the style expository."<ref> [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=369&letter=K&search=Quran]</ref>

[[Michael Sells]], citing the work of the critic [[Norman O. Brown]], acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming "disorganization" of Qur'anic literary expression — its "scattered or fragmented mode of composition," in Sells's phrase — is in fact a literary device capable of delivering "profound effects — as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated."<ref> Michael Sells, ''Approaching the Qur'an'' (White Cloud Press, 1999), and Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam." ''Social Text'' 3:8 (1983-1984)</ref> Sells also addresses the much-discussed "repetitiveness" of the Qur'an, seeing this, too, as a literary device.

<blockquote>"The values presented in the very early Meccan revelations are repeated throughout the hymnic Suras. There is a sense of directness, of intimacy, as if the hearer were being asked repeatedly a simple question: what will be of value at the end of a human life?" <ref>Michael Sells, ''Approaching the Qur'an'' (White Cloud Press, 1999)</ref></blockquote>

== Influence on the Arabic literature ==

Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at [[University of Chicago]] and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at [[Youngstown State University]] state that: <ref> Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, ''Literature and the Qur'an'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], vol. 3, pp. 213, 216 </ref>

<blockquote> Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Qur'an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature. </blockquote>
<blockquote> The main areas in which the Qur'an exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Qur'an particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that qur'anic words, idioms, and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulatic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Qur'an create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...</blockquote>

== Origin and development ==
{{POV-section}}
{{main|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
{{Islam}}
[[Image:Uthman Koran-RZ.jpg|thumb|right|9th century quran]]
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad received the Qur'an as a revelation from God through the angel Gabriel (see {{Quran-usc-range|10|37|38}}), and is reported to have had mysterious seizures at the moments of inspiration. Welch, a scholar of Islamic studies, states in the [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, since they are unlikely to have been invented by later Muslims. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations by the people around him. Muhammad's enemies, however, accused him of being a man who was possessed, or of being a soothsayer or magician, since his claimed experiences were similar to those made by those soothsayer figures well known in ancient Arabia. Additionally, Welch states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad began to see himself as a prophet. <ref> [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] online, Muhammad article </ref>

Some non-Muslims say that the Qur'ān was derived from the [[Bible]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Although the Qur'ān itself confirms the similarity between it and the former books (the [[Torah]] and the [[Gospel]]),<ref>{{cite web|last=University of Southern California|title=Qur`an|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/003.qmt.html|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>it tells that:<blockquote> "We know indeed that they say, "It is a man that teaches him." The tongue of him they wickedly point to is notably foreign, while this is Arabic, pure and clear.<ref>{{cite web|last=University of Southern California|title=Qur'an|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/016.qmt.html 16:103|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref></blockquote> The Qur'ān attributes this similarity to their unique origin and says all of them have been revealed by the God.<ref>{{cite web|last=AL-BAQARA|title=Muslim texts||url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.285 2:285|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>

Based on Islamic traditions and legends, it is generally believed that Muhammad could neither read nor write, but that he would simply recite what was revealed to him for his companions to write down and memorize. According to the Qur'ān <blockquote>"And thou wast not (able) to recite a Book before this (Book came), nor art thou (able) to transcribe it with thy right hand: In that case, indeed, would the talkers of vanities have doubted.<ref>{{cite web|last=AL-ANKABOOT|title=Translation of the Qur'an|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/029.qmt.html 29:48|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>" "Say: "If Allah had so willed, I should not have rehearsed it to you, nor would He have made it known to you. A whole life-time before this have I tarried amongst you: will ye not then understand?<ref>{{cite web|last=YUNUS|title=Translation of the Qur'an|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/010.qmt.html 10:16||accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref> </blockquote>
However some scholars - ([[Christoph Luxenberg]], [[Maxime Rodinson]], [[William Montgomery Watt]], etc.) - have argued that the claim that Muhammad was not able to read and write at all is based on weak traditions and that, because of many details concerning Muhammad's biography and teachings, it is not convincing:

''"The Meccans were in general familiar with reading and writing. A certain amount of writing would be necessary for commercial purposes ... In view of this familiarity with writing among the Meccans particularly, both for records and for religious scriptures, there is a presumption that Muhammad knew at least enough to keep commercial records ... The probability is that Muhammad was able to read and write sufficiently for business purposes, but it seems certain that he had not read any [religious] scriptures."'' - W. Montgomery Watt in ''"Muhammad's Mecca"''<ref>[[William Montgomery Watt]], ''"Muhammad's Mecca"'', Chapter 3: ''"Religion In Pre-Islamic Arabia"'', p. 26-52</ref>

''"Whatever Arabic tradition may have assumed from a wrong interpretation of a word in the Koran, it seems certain that Muhammad learned to read and write. But except for a few vague and unreliable pointers in his life and work we have no way of knowing the extent of his learning."'' - M. Rodinson in ''"Mohammed"''<ref>[[Maxime Rodinson]], ''"Mohammed''", translated by Anne Carter, p. 38-49, 1971</ref>

Adherents to Islam hold that the wording of the Qur'anic text available today corresponds exactly to that revealed to [[Muhammad]] himself: as [http://www.godsmosque.org/june2006.html the words of God], said to be delivered to [[Muhammad]] through the angel [[Gabriel]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The Qur'ān is not only considered by Muslims to be a guide but also as a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. Muslims argue that it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Qur'an, as the Qur'ān states: <blockquote> "And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true. But if ye cannot- and of a surety ye cannot- then fear the Fire whose fuel is men and stones,- which is prepared for those who reject Faith. <ref>{{cite web|last=AL-BAQARA|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html|title=USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim texts|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref></blockquote>

Some non-Muslim scholars accept a similar account, but without accepting any supernatural claims: they say that Muhammad put forth verses and laws that he claimed to be of divine origin; that his followers memorized or wrote down his revelations; that numerous versions of these revelations circulated after his death in 632 CE {{Fact|date=August 2007}}. They claim that first [http://ibnalhyderabadee.wordpress.com/2006/04/11/legacy-of-abu-bakr-compilation-of-the-quraan/ Abu Bakr ordered its compilation] and then Uthman ordered the collection and ordering of this mass of material circa 650-656. These scholars point to many attributes of the Qur'ān as indicative of a human collection process that was extremely respectful of a miscellaneous collection of original texts. <ref>[[Originality dispute]], http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_301_350/a_divine_guidance_or_a_historica.htm</ref>

Other scholars have proposed that some development of the text of the Qur'ān took place after the death of Muhammad and before the currently accepted version of the Qur'ān stabilized. Western academic scholars associated with such theories include [[John Wansbrough]], [[Patricia Crone]], [[Michael Cook]], [[Christoph Luxenberg]], and [[Gerd R. Puin]]. They claim support from text within the oldest Qur'an; which is [[Qur'an in the House of Manuscript in Sana'a]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

== Language==
[[Image:IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|11th Century North African Qur'an in the [[British Museum]]]]
The Qur'an is thought to be one of the first texts written in Arabic. It is written in the classical [[Arabic language|Arabic]] which is also the Arabic of [[Arabic poetry|pre-Islamic poetry]] including the ''[[Mu'allaqat]]'', or ''Suspended Odes''. Some scholars argue that the first Qur'an was not written in Arabic, but instead the spoken language of the time, namely a later Syro-Aramaic.
From ''The Foreign Vocabulary Of The Qur'an'', [[Arthur Jeffery]] 1938,

{{cquote|Soon after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, armies led by his followers burst out of Arabia and conquered the [[Near East]], [[Northern Africa]], [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[Europe]]. Arab rulers had millions of foreign subjects, with whom they had to communicate. Thus, the language rapidly changed in response to this new situation, losing complexities of case and obscure vocabulary. Several generations after the prophet's death, many words used in the Qur'ān had become opaque to ordinary sedentary Arabic-speakers, as Arabic had changed so much, so rapidly. The [[Bedouin]] speech changed at a considerably slower rate, however, and early Arabic lexicographers sought out Bedouin speech as well as pre-Islamic poetry to explain difficult words or elucidate points of grammar. Partly in response to the religious need to explain the Qur'an to Muslims who were not familiar with Qur'anic Arabic, [[Arabic grammar]] and lexicography soon became important sciences. The model for the Arabic [[literary language]] remains to this day the speech used in Qur'anic times, rather than the current spoken dialects. }}{{Facts|date=February 2007}}

== For reading and recitation ==

In addition to and largely independent of the division into surahs, there are various ways of dividing the Qur'ān into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and memorization. The Qur'ān is divided into thirty [[juz'|''ajza''']] (parts). The thirty parts can be used to work through the entire Qur'an in a week or a month. Some of these parts are known by names and these names are the first few words by which the Juz starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two [[hizb|''ahzab'']] (groups), and each hizb is in turn subdivided into four quarters. A different structure is provided by the ''[[ruku'at]]'' (sing. ''Raka'ah''), semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each. Some also divide the Qur'ān into seven [[manzil|''manazil'']] (stations).

Most Muslims treat paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, ritually washing before reading the Qur'an.<ref>Mahfouz (2006), p.35</ref> Worn out Qur'ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but are buried or burnt.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.salafyink.com/articles/What%20should%20be%20done%20with%20a%20torn%20Mushaf.pdf | title=How is a torn Mushaf (Qur'an) disposed of? | accessdate=2007-04-18 | author=The Permanent Committee of Research & Islamic Rulings
Of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.}}</ref> Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an earn the right to the title of ''[[Hafiz (Quran)|Hafiz]]''.<ref>Kugle (2006), p.47; Esposito (2000a), p.275</ref>

=== Recitation ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=April 2007}}
The very word ''Qur'ān'' is usually translated as "recital," and has always been transmitted orally as well as textually.

To perform [[salat]] (prayer), a mandatory obligation in Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some [[sura]]s of the Qur'ān (typically starting with the first sura, [[al-Fatiha]], known as the "seven oft-repeated verses," and then moving on to the shorter ones at the end). Until one has learned al-Fatiha, a Muslim can only say phrases like "praise be to God" during the salat.

A person whose recital repertoire encompasses the whole Qur'ān is called a [[qari']] (قَارٍئ) or [[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]] (which translate as "reciter" or "protector," respectively). Muhammad is regarded as the first qari' since he was the first to recite it. [[Recitation]] (''[[tilawa]]'' تلاوة) of the Qur'ān is a fine art in the Muslim world.

===Schools of recitation===
{{main|Qira'at}}
[[Image:Quran fragment 33,73-74.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Page of a 13th century Qur'an, showing [[Sura 33]]: 73]]
There are several schools of Qur'anic recitation, all of which are possible pronunciations of the Uthmanic [[rasm]]: Seven reliable, three permissible and (at least) four uncanonical - in 8 sub-traditions each - making for 80 recitation variants altogether<ref>Navid Kermani, Das ästhetische Erleben des Koran. Munich (1999)</ref>. For a recitation to be canonical it must conform to three conditions:

# It must match the rasm, letter for letter.
# It must conform with the syntactic rules of the [[Arabic language]].
# It must have a continuous [[isnad]] to [[Muhammad]] through ''[[tawatur]]'', meaning that it has to be related by a large group of people to another down the isnad chain.

[[Ibn Mujahid]] documented seven such recitations and [[Ibn Al-Jazri]] added three. They are:{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

# [[Nafi`]] of [[Madina]] (169/[[785]]), transmitted by [[Warsh]] and [[Qaloon]]
# [[Ibn Kathir (recitor)|Ibn Kathir]] of [[Makka]] (120/[[737]]), transmitted by [[Al-Bazzi]] and [[Qonbul]]
# [[Ibn `Amer]] of [[Damascus]] (118/[[736]]), transmitted by [[Hisham (narrator)|Hisham]] and [[Ibn Zakwan]]
# [[Abu `Amr]] of [[Basra]] (148/[[770]]), transmitted by Al-Duri and [[Al-Soosi]]
# [[`Asim]] of [[Kufa]] (127/[[744]]), transmitted by [[Sho`bah]] and [[Hafs]]
# [[Hamza (recitor)|Hamza]] of Kufa (156/[[772]]), transmitted by [[Khalaf]] and [[Khallad]]
# [[Al-Kisa'i]] of Kufa (189/[[804]]), transmitted by [[Abul-Harith]] and [[Al-Duri]]
# [[Abu-Ja`far]] of Madina, transmitted by [[Ibn Wardan]] and [[Ibn Jammaz]]
# [[Ya`qoob]] of [[Yemen]], transmitted by [[Ruways]] and [[Rawh]]
# [[Khalaf]] of Kufa, transmitted by [[Ishaaq (narrator)|Ishaaq]] and [[Idris (narrator)|Idris]]

These recitations differ in the vocalization (''tashkil'' تشكيل) of a few words, which in turn gives a complementary meaning to the word in question according to the rules of Arabic grammar. For example, the vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can also change its [[Arabic grammar#Verb|stem]] formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops ([[hamza]]s) may be added or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular recitation. For example, the name of archangel [[Gabriel]] is pronounced differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl, Jibra'īl, and Jibra'il. The name "Qur'ān" is pronounced without the glottal stop (as "Qurān") in one recitation, and prophet [[Abraham]]'s name is pronounced Ibrāhām in another.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Uthman moshaf.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Quran collected in Uthman era.]] -->
The more widely used narrations are those of [[Hafs]] (حفص عن عاصم), [[Warsh]] (ورش عن نافع), [[Qaloon]] (قالون عن نافع) and [[Al-Duri]] according to [[Abu `Amr]] (الدوري عن أبي عمرو). Muslims firmly believe that all canonical recitations were recited by the Prophet himself, citing the respective [[isnad]] chain of narration, and accept them as valid for worshipping and as a reference for rules of [[Sharia]]. The uncanonical recitations are called "explanatory" for their role in giving a different perspective for a given verse or [[ayah]]. Today several dozen persons hold the title "Memorizer of the Ten Recitations." This is considered to be a great accomplishment among the followers of Islam.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

The presence of these different recitations is attributed to many [[hadith]]. [[Malik Ibn Anas]] has reported:<ref>[[Malik Ibn Anas]], [[Muwatta]], vol. 1 (Egypt: Dar Ahya al-Turath, n.d.), 201, (no. 473).</ref>
:''Abd al-Rahman Ibn Abd al-Qari'' narrated: "[[Umar|Umar Ibn Khattab]] said before me: I heard ''Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam'' reading Surah [[Al-Furqan|Furqan]] in a different way from the one I used to read it, and the [[Muhammad|Prophet]] (sws) himself had read out this surah to me. Consequently, as soon as I heard him, I wanted to get hold of him. However, I gave him respite until he had finished the prayer. Then I got hold of his cloak and dragged him to the Prophet (sws). I said to him: "I have heard this person [Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam] reading Surah Furqan in a different way from the one you had read it out to me." The Prophet (sws) said: "Leave him alone [O 'Umar]." Then he said to Hisham: "Read [it]." [Umar said:] "He read it out in the same way as he had done before me." [At this,] the Prophet (sws) said: "It was revealed thus." Then the Prophet (sws) asked me to read it out. So I read it out. [At this], he said: "It was revealed thus; this Qur'ān has been revealed in Seven ''Ahruf''. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them.

[[Suyuti]], a famous 15th century Islamic theologian, writes after interpreting above hadith in 40 different ways:<ref>[[Suyuti]], Tanwir al-Hawalik, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1993), 199.</ref>
{{cquote|And to me the best opinion in this regard is that of the people who say that this Hadith is from among matters of ''mutashabihat'', the meaning of which cannot be understood.}}

Many reports contradict presence of variant readings:<ref name="jav">[[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]]. [[Mizan]], ''[http://renaissance.com.pk/JanQur2y7.htm Principles of Understanding the Qu'ran]'', [[Al-Mawrid]]</ref>
*''Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami'' reports, "the reading of [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] and that of all the [[Muhajirun]] and the [[Ansar]] was the same. They would read the Qur'an according to the ''Qira'at al-'ammah''. This is the same reading which was read out twice by the Prophet (sws) to [[Gabriel]] in the year of his death. [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] was also present in this reading [called] the '''Ardah-i akhirah''. It was this very reading that he taught the Qur'an to people till his death".<ref>Zarkashi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Qur'ān, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1980), 237.</ref>
*[[Ibn Sirin]] writes, "the reading on which the Qur'an was read out to the prophet in the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading the Qur'an today".<ref>[[Suyuti]], al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur'ān, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Baydar: Manshurat al-Radi, 1343 AH), 177.</ref>

[[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]] also purports that there is only one recitation of Qur'ān, which is called ''Qira'at of Hafs'' or in classical scholarship, it is called ''Qira'at al-'ammah''. The Qur'ān has also specified that it was revealed in the language of the prophet's tribe: the [[Quraysh]] ({{quran-usc|19|97}}, {{quran-usc|44|58}}).<ref name="jav"/>

However, the identification of the recitation of Hafs as the ''Qira'at al-'ammah'' is somewhat problematic when that was the recitation of the people of Kufa in Iraq, and there is better reason to identify the recitation of the reciters of Madinah as the dominant recitation. The reciter of Madinah was Nafi' and Imam Malik remarked "The recitation of Nafi' is Sunnah." Moreover, the dialect of Arabic spoken by Quraysh and the Arabs of the Hijaz was known to have less use of the letter hamzah, as is the case in the recitation of Nafi', whereas in the Hafs recitation the hamzah is one of the very dominant features.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

<blockquote>AZ [however] says that the people of El-Hijaz and Hudhayl, and the people of [[Makkah]] and [[Al-Madinah]], to not pronounce [[hamzah]] [at all]: and 'Isa Ibn-'Omar says, Tamim pronounce hamzah, and the people of Al-Hijaz, in cases of necessity, [in poetry,] do so.<ref>E. W. Lane, ''Arabic-English Lexicon''</ref></blockquote>

So the hamzah is of the dialect of the Najd whose people came to comprise the dominant Arabic element in Kufa giving some features of their dialect to their recitation, whereas the recitation of Nafi' and the people of Madinah maintained some features of the dialect of Hijaz and the Quraysh.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

However, the discussion of the priority of one or the other recitation is unnecessary since it is a consensus of knowledgable people that all of the seven recitations of the Qur'an are acceptable and valid for recitation in the prayer. {{Fact|date=May 2007}}

Moreover, the so-called "un-canonical" recitations such as are narrated from some of the Companions and which do not conform to the Uthmani copy of the Qur'an are not legitimate for recitation in the prayer, but knowledge of them can legitimately be used in the tafsir of the Qur'an, not as a proof but as a valid argument for an explanation of an ayah.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== Writing and printing ===
[[Image:Large Koran.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Page from a Qur'ān ('Umar-i Aqta'). [[Iran]], present-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Timur]]id dynasty, circa 1400. Opaque [[watercolor]], ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script. 170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in.)Historical Region: [[Uzbekistan]]]]

Most Muslims today use printed editions of the Qur'ān. There are many editions, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive or inexpensive. Bilingual forms with the Arabic on one side and a gloss into a more familiar language on the other are very popular.

Qur'āns are produced in many different sizes, from extremely large Qur'āns for display purposes, to extremely small Qur'āns.

Qur'āns were first printed from carved wooden blocks, one block per page. There are existing specimen of pages and blocks dating from the 10th century AD. Mass-produced less expensive versions of the Qur'an were later produced by [[lithography]], a technique for printing illustrations. Qur'ans so printed could reproduce the fine calligraphy of hand-made versions.

The oldest surviving Qur'ān for which movable type was used was printed in [[Venice]] in 1537/1538. It seems to have been prepared for sale in the [[Ottoman empire]]. [[Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]] sponsored a printing of the Qur'ān in 1787. This was followed by editions from [[Kazan]] (1828), [[Persia]] (1833) and [[Istanbul]] (1877). <ref>{{cite web|last=The Qur'an in Manuscript and Print|url=http://www.islamworld.net/UUQ/3.txt|title=THE QUR'ANIC SCRIPT|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>

It is extremely difficult to render the full Qur'ān, with all the points, in computer code, such as [[Unicode]]. The [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]] makes computer files of the Qur'ān freely available both as images<ref>{{cite web|last=Article by A. Yusuf Ali|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/quran/index.htm|title=The Holy Qur'an|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref> and in a temporary Unicode version.<ref>{{cite web|last=Unicode Qur'an|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/uq/|title=Sacred-texts|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref> Various designers and software firms have attempted to develop computer fonts that can adequately render the Qur'ān.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mishafi Font|url=http://www.diwan.com/mishafi/main.htm|title=Award-winning calligraphic typeface|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>

Before printing was widely adopted, the Qur'ān was transmitted by copyists and calligraphers. Since Muslim tradition felt that directly portraying sacred figures and events might lead to idolatry, it was considered wrong to decorate the Qur'ān with pictures (as was often done for Christian texts, for example). Muslims instead lavished love and care upon the sacred text itself. Arabic is written in many scripts, some of which are both complex and beautiful. [[Arabic calligraphy]] is a highly honored art, much like [[Chinese calligraphy]]. Muslims also decorated their Qur'āns with abstract figures ([[arabesque]]s), colored inks, and gold leaf. Pages from some of these antique Qur'āns are displayed throughout this article.

Some Muslims believe that it is not only acceptable, but commendable to decorate everyday objects with Qur'anic verses, as daily reminders. Other Muslims feel that this is a misuse of Qur'anic verses, because those who handle these objects will not have cleansed themselves properly and may use them without respect.

== Translations ==
{{main|Translation of the Qur'an}}
The Qur'ān has been [[Translation|translated]] into many languages, including [[English language|English]]. These translations are considered to be glosses for personal use only, and have no weight in serious religious discussion. Translation is a difficult endeavor, because each translator must employ both art and science when trying to replicate shades of meaning in another language. Thus Muslims often refer to a Qur'anic translation as an "interpretation," and do not consider it to be a real Qur'ān. Just as Jewish and Christian scholars turn to the earliest texts, in Hebrew or Greek, when it is a question of exactly what is meant by a certain passage, so Muslim scholars turn to the Qur'ān in Arabic.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

The first translator of the Qur'ān was [[Salman the Persian]]. He was one of Muhammad's nearest companions and translated the Qur'an during the 7th century - some of the people of Persia asked Salman al-Farisi to write to them something of the Qur'ān, and he wrote to them the [[Fatihah]] in Persian.<ref>An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matbacat at-'Tadamun n.d.), 380. </ref>

[[Robert of Ketton]] was the first person to translate the Qur'ān into a Western language, [[Latin]], in 1143.<ref>{{cite book |coauthors= Bloom, Jonathan and Blair, Sheila | year=2002 | title=Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | pages=p. 42}}</ref>
[[Alexander Ross (writer)|Alexander Ross]] offered the first English version in 1649. In 1734, [[George Sale]] produced the first scholarly translation of the Qur'ān into English; another was produced by [[Richard Bell]] in 1937, and yet another by [[Arthur John Arberry]] in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims; the most popular of these are the translations by [[Muhammad Muhsin Khan|Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan]] and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al Hilali, [[Maulana Muhammad Ali]], [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], [[Mohammed Habib Shakir|M. H. Shakir]], [[Muhammad Asad]], and [[Marmaduke Pickthall]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

The English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; thus, for example, two widely-read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "[[you]]." Another common stylistic decision has been to refrain from translating "Allah" — in Arabic, literally, "The God" — into the common English word "God." These choices may differ in more recent translations.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

== Interpretation ==
{{main article|Tafsir}}
The Qur'ān has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication.
According to [[Allameh Tabatabaei]], interpretation of the Qur'ān ([[Tafsir]]) means "explaining the meanings of the Qur'anic verse, clarifying its import and finding out its significance."<ref>[http://www.almizan.org/new/introduction.asp?TitleText=Introduction Preface of Al'-Mizan]</ref>

Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities in Islam. The prophet was the first person who described the [[Ayats]] for Muslims, as is clear from the words of Allah:" A similar (favour have ye already received) in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in Scripture[Qur'ān] and Wisdom, and in new knowledge[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html 2:151]."

The first exegetes were a few [[Companions of Muhammad|Companions of the Prophet]], like Imam [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], [[Abdullah ibn Abbas]], [[Abdullah ibn Umar]] and [[Ubayy ibn Kab]] . Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions of the Prophet were narrated to make its meaning clear. <ref>[http://www.almizan.org/new/introduction.asp?TitleText=Introduction]</ref>

Because Qur'ān is spoken in the classical form of Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam, who happened to be mostly non-Arabs, did not always understand the Qur'ān's Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Arab Muslims and they were extremely concerned to reconcile apparent contradictions and conflicts in the Qur'an. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Qur'anic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "[[naskh (exegesis)|abrogating]]" (''nāsikh'') the earlier text. Memories of the ''occasions of revelation ([[asbab al-nuzul|asbāb al-nuzūl]])'', the circumstances under which Muhammad had spoken as he did, were also collected, as they were believed to explain some apparent obscurities. Although the concept of abrogation does exist in the Qur'ān, Muslims differ in their interpretaions of the word "Abrogation". Some believe that there are abrogations in the text of the Qur'ān and some insist that there are no contradictions or unclear passages to explain.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

==Similarities to the Bible==
{{main|Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an}}

The Qur'ān retells stories of many of the people and events recounted in [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] sacred books ([[Tanakh]], [[Bible]]) and devotional literature ([[Apocrypha]], [[Midrash]]), although it differs in many details. [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Heber]], [[Shelah]], Abraham, [[Lot]], [[Ishmael]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]], [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]], [[Jethro]], [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Elijah]], [[Elisha]], [[Jonah]], [[Aaron]], [[Moses]], Ezra, [[Zechariah (priest)|Zechariah]], [[Jesus]], and [[John the Baptist]] are mentioned in the Qur'an as prophets of God (see [[Prophets of Islam]]). Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to the common divine source, and that the Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets. According to the Qur'ān <blockquote>"It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).{{Fact|date=March 2007}}[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/003.qmt.html 3:3] "</blockquote>
Muslims believe that those texts were neglected, corrupted ([[tahrif|''tahrif'']]) or altered in time by the Jews and Christians and have been replaced by God's final and perfect revelation, which is the Qur'ān.<ref> [[Bernard Lewis]], [[The Jews of Islam]] (1984). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8. p.69 </ref> However, many Jews and Christians believe that the historical biblical archaeological record refutes this assertion, because the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (the [[Tanakh]] and other Jewish writings which predate the origin of the Qur'an) have been fully translated,<ref> The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English (2002) HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-060064-0 </ref> validating the authenticity of the Greek [[Septuagint]].<ref> http://www.septuagint.net </ref>

== Relationship with Islamic culture ==
Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of [[Al-Waqia|sura 56]]:77-79: ''"That this is indeed a Qur'ān Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean."'', many scholars opine that a Muslim perform [[wudu]] (ablution or a ritual cleansing with water) before touching a copy of the Qur'ān, or ''[[mushaf]]''. This view has been contended by other scholars on the fact that, according to Arabic linguistic rules, this verse alludes to a fact and does not comprise an order. The literal translation thus reads as ''"That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'ān, In a Book kept hidden, Which none toucheth save the purified,"'' (translated by Mohamed Marmaduke Pickthall). It is suggested based on this translation that performing ablution is not required.

[[Qur'an desecration]] means insulting the Qur'ān by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims must always treat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies of the text. Respect for the written text of the Qur'ān is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims. They believe that intentionally insulting the Qur'ān is a form of [[blasphemy]]. In Islam, blasphemy is considered a sin. In the Qur'an, Allah says "He forgives all sins, except disbelieving in God (blasphemy)". In Islam if a person dies while in blasphemy, they will not enter heaven, except if said person repented before death.

==Criticism==
{{main|Criticism of the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an's teachings on matters of war and peace have become topics of heated discussion in recent years. Some critics allege that some verses of the Qur'an in their historical and literary context sanction military action against unbelievers as a whole both during the lifetime of Muhammad and after.<ref>Robert Spencer. ''Onward Muslim Soldiers'', page 121.</ref><ref>Syed Kamran Mirza [http://www.mukto-mona.com/Articles/skm/islamic_terrorism.htm What is Islamic Terrorism and How could it be Defeated?]</ref> In response to this criticism, some Muslims argue that such verses of the Qur'an are taken out of context,<ref>Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Page 413. Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/mali/religionislam/religionislammuhammadali.shtml]</ref><ref name="Boundries_Princeton"> Sohail H. Hashmi, David Miller, ''Boundaries and Justice: diverse ethical perspectives'', Princeton University Press, p.197 </ref><ref> Khaleel Muhammad, professor of religious studies at San Diego State University, states, regarding his discussion with the critic Robert Spencer, that "when I am told ... that Jihad only means war, or that I have to accept interpretations of the Quran that non-Muslims (with no good intentions or knowledge of Islam) seek to force upon me, I see a certain agendum developing: one that is based on hate, and I refuse to be part of such an intellectual crime." [http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~khaleel/]</ref> and claim that when the verses are read in context it clearly appears that the Qur'an prohibits aggression,<ref>Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Page 414 "When shall war cease". Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/mali/religionislam/religionislammuhammadali.shtml]</ref><ref>Sadr-u-Din, Maulvi. "Quran and War", page 8. Published by The Muslim Book Society, Lahore, Pakistan. [http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/others/sadrdin/quranwar/quranwar.shtml]</ref><ref>[http://www.aaiil.org/uk/newsletters/2002/0302.shtml Article on Jihad] by Dr. G. W. Leitner (founder of The Oriental Institute, UK) published in Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1886. ("jihad, even when explained as a righteous effort of waging war in self defense against the grossest outrage on one's religion, is strictly limited..")</ref> and allows fighting only in self defense.<ref> [http://www.aaiil.org/text/articles/bash/quraniccommandmentswarjihad.shtml The Quranic Commandments Regarding War/Jihad] An English rendering of an Urdu article appearing in Basharat-e-Ahmadiyya Vol. I, p. 228-232, by Dr. Basharat Ahmad; published by the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam</ref><ref>Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" Pages 411-413. Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement [http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/mali/religionislam/religionislammuhammadali.shtml]</ref>

Some critics reject the Muslim belief regarding the divine origin of the Qur'an<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08692a.htm Koran], by Gabriel Oussani, ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', retrieved April 13, 2006</ref><ref>[[Patricia Crone]], [[Michael Cook]], and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in {{cite news | url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199901/koran | publisher=The Atlantic Monthly | title=What Is the Koran? | author=Toby Lester |date=January 1999}}</ref><ref>Jewish Encyclpoedia: comp. also xvi. 70 </ref>, and base their argument on the problems that they claim to exist in the Qur'ān, both textually and morally.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Religion'', By Mircea Eliade. Volum 12 pg. 165-6, pub. 1987 ISBN 0-02-909700-2</ref><ref>Robert Spencer. ''Onward Muslim Soldiers,''</ref>

Some critics have also commented on the arrangement of the Qur'anic text with accusations of lack of continuity, derivative mythology, inconsistency, contradiction, absence of any chronological or thematic order, and presence of repetition<ref> Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Koran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21 </ref><ref>"The final process of collection and codification of the Qur'an text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Qur'an disorganized, repetitive, and very difficult to read." ''Approaches to the Asian Classics,'' Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press,1990, p. 65</ref>. Others have praised the Quran's style as a book of divine guidance<ref>''The New Approach to the Study of the Quran,'' Dr. hasanuddin Ahmed, 2004, page 13, Goodword books,
Quote:"Its style, in accordance with its contents and aim, is stern, grand, forcible - ever and anon truly sublime...It soon attracts, astounds, and in the end enforces our reverence"</ref>, and its eloquence has been described as near perfect by Dr. [[Francis Steingass]] due to the Quran's "ability to transform savage tribes into civilized nations."<ref> The "Dictionary of Islam" by Thomas Patrick Hughes, p 528
Quote: "its eloquence was perfect, simply because it created a civilized nation out of savage tribes, and shot a fresh woof into the old warp of history."</ref>

== See also ==
{{sisterlinks}}
* [[Ayat]]
* [[Esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an]]
* [[Hafiz (Quran)|Hafiz]]
* [[Islam]]
* [[Origin and development of the Qur'an]]
* [[Persons related to Qur'anic verses]]
* [[Qur'an and miracles]]
* [[Qur'an alone]]
* [[Qur'an and Sunnah]]
* [[Qur'anic literalism]]
* [[Qur'an reading]]
* [[Sura]]
* [[Tafsir]]
* [[Women in Quran]]
* There are also articles on each of the [[sura]]s, or chapters, of the Qur'ān. Click on a chapter number to view the article.
{{Sura|||}}

==Notes==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>

==References==
*{{cite book | last=Allen | first=Roger | title=An Introduction to Arabic literature | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521776570}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000 | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002 | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}
*{{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}}
*{{cite book | last=Mahfouz | first=Tarek | title=Speak Arabic Instantly | publisher= Lulu Press, Inc. | year=2006 | id=ISBN 1847289002}}
*{{cite book | last=Molloy | first=Michael | title=Experiencing the World's Religions | publisher=McGraw-Hill | edition=4th | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0073535647}}

===Further reading===
{{Wikisourcerename|The Holy Qur'an}}
;Translations
* [http://quranexplorer.com/ Interactive Authenticated Quran Translations & Recitations in English] Also available in Urdu, Indonesian, Malay, Turkish, French and Dutch
* [http://www.mysticletters.com/ Read Quran Online] - Specialized site for easy reading of Quran online with English & Arabic views, page themes, and ability to customize font styling.
* [http://www.guidedways.com/list.php Quran in English, Urdu, French, Spanish and German] - English versions include translations by Dr. M. Mohsin Khan, Yusuf Ali and Pickthal.
* [http://www.ahadees.com/quran.html Quran - The Knazul Iman] - English Version translated from the Original by Imam [[Ahmed Raza Khan]], a [[Sunni]] Islamic Scholar.
* [http://www.islamibayanaat.com/EnglishMarefulQuran.htm English Translation and Explanation of Quran, Maariful Quran] by Mufti Taqi Usmani, Prof. Shamim (Tafsir by Mufti Maulana Muhammad Shafi Usmani RA)
* [http://www.GlobalQuran.com GlobalQuran.com] over 30 different languages of translation and search in all of them at once, also be able add Quran on your site/blog.
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ The Qur'an at USC-MSA] - three translations (Yusuf Ali, Shakir, and Pickthal). Also, Abul Ala Maududi's chapter introductions to the Qur'an.
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/index.htm#quran The Qur'an] at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]]
* [http://www.islamawakened.com/Quran/ Islam Awakened] - ayat-by-ayat transliteration and parallel translations from eleven prominent translators.
* [http://islam.thetruecall.com/modules.php?name=Quran Quran Translation and Phonetic Search] Translations in English, French, German, Japanese, Russian and Portuguese with English and Phonetic Search
* [http://www.islamicity.com/QuranSearch/ IslamiCity Qur'an search]
* [http://www.hti.umich.edu/k/koran/ Qur'ān] Search or browse the English Shakir translation
* [http://www.qran.org/q-chrono.htm Qur'ān Verses in Chronological Order]
* [http://www.textinmotion.com/ Text In Motion], concordance searchable by root or by grammatical form.

;Older commentary
* al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir -- ''Jami' al-bayān `an ta'wil al-Qur'ān'', Cairo [[1955]]-[[1969|69]], transl. J. Cooper (ed.), ''The Commentary on the Qur'an'', Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-920142-0
* Tafsir Ibn-Kathir, Hafiz Imad al-din Abu al-Fida Ismail ibn Kathir al-Damishqi al-Shafi'i - (died 774 Hijrah (Islamic Calendar))
* Tafsir Al-Qurtubi (Al-Jami'li-Ahkam), Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abi Bakr ibn Farah al-Qurtubi - (died 671 Hijrah (Islamic Calendar))

;Older scholarship
* [[Theodor Nöldeke|Nöldeke, Theodor]] -- ''Geschichte des Qorâns'', Göttingen, 1860.

;Recent scholarship
* [[Al-Azami]], M. M. -- ''The History of the Qur'anic Text from Revelation to Compilation'', UK Islamic Academy: Leicester 2003.
* [[Gunter Luling]] A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 2003. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 81-2081952-7
* [[Christoph Luxenberg|Luxenberg, Christoph]] (2004) -- [[The Syro-Aramaic Reading Of The Qur'an|The Syro-Aramaic Reading Of The Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Qur'an]], Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007 ISBN 3-89930-088-2
* [[Jane Damen McAuliffe|McAuliffe, Jane Damen]] -- ''Quranic Christians : An Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis'', Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-36470-1
* McAuliffe, Jane Damen (ed.) -- ''Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an'', Brill, 2002-2004.
* [[Gerd R. Puin|Puin, Gerd R.]] -- "Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in Sana'a," in ''The Qur'an as Text'', ed. Stefan Wild, , E.J. Brill 1996, pp. 107-111 (as reprinted in ''What the Koran Really Says'', ed. Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, 2002)
* [[Fazlur Rahman|Rahman, Fazlur]] -- ''Major Themes in the Qur'an'', Bibliotheca Islamica, 1989. ISBN 0-88297-046-1
*[[Louay M. Safi]] -- [http://qthemes.wordpress.com/ Quranic Themes]
* [[Neal Robinson|Robinson, Neal]], ''Discovering the Qur'an'', Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58901-024-8
* [[Michael Sells|Sells, Michael]], -- ''Approaching the Qur'an: The Early Revelations,'' White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 1-883991-26-9
* [[Barbara Freyer Stowasser|Stowasser, Barbara Freyer]] -- ''Women in the Qur'an, Traditions, and Interpretation'', Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996), ISBN 0-19-511148-6
* [[John Wansbrough|Wansbrough, John]] -- ''Quranic Studies'', Oxford University Press, 1977
* [[W. M. Watt|Watt, W. M.]], and [[R. Bell]], ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', Edinburgh University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-7486-0597-5
</div>

==External links==
{{col-start}}
{{col-1-of-2}}
*[http://sheepoo.wordpress.com Classical/Quranic Arabic Blog]
*[http://naatsharif.com/quran_19064201c8a32f18e300d8d3838e8a.php Listen Live to Quran]
*http://www.quranic.org/
*http://www.quranmiracles.com/
;Manuscripts
*[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Text/Mss/ Islamic Awareness, The Qur'anic Manuscripts]
*[http://www.usna.edu/Users/humss/bwheeler/quran/quran_index.html Qur'ān Manuscripts]
*[http://calligraphyislamic.com/ Qur'ānic Art of Calligraphy]

{{col-2-of-2}}
;Audio/Video/Documentary
*[http://www.islamontv.com Video's on different topics from Quran]
*[http://www.QuranAcademy.com Quran Academy: Audio/Video commentary/translation of the Qur'ān]
*[http://www.alhamdulillah.net/modules.php?name=Quran Several Quran Tafseers in English and Arabic]
*[http://www.aswatalislam.net/CategorySelectionMadeP.aspx?CatID=1005 Videos of recitation, commentary, or prayer]
*[http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/engblue/audio.php?page=souraview&qid=468&rid=1 English Reading]
*[http://www.reciter.org/ Reciter.org]
*[http://quran.tanyt.info?lang=en English Quran], French, karaoke audio mode for Arabic.
{{col-end}}

[[kab:Leqran]]

[[Category:Aqidah]]
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[[Category:Qur'an|*]]
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[[af:Koran]]
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Revision as of 19:20, 3 August 2007

This is a book for murderers

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