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==Note on the name==
==Note on the name==
Although the conspiracy was called the Hindu-German conspiracy, the conspiracy involved not only Hindus and Germans, but also substantial numbers of Mohamedans and Punjabis as well, along with a strong Irish support that predated German involvement . The term Hindu was used commonly in opprobrium in America to identify [[Indian people|Indians]] regrdless of religion. Likewise, conspiracy was also a negative term. The term Hindu Conspiracy was used by the government to actively discredit the Indian revolutionaries. In addition, the jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude Irish person with republican views or associations.
Although the conspiracy was called the Hindu-German conspiracy, the conspiracy involved not only Hindus and Germans, but also substantial numbers of Mohamedans and Punjabis as well, along with a strong Irish support that predated German involvement . The term Hindu was used commonly in opprobrium in America to identify [[Indian people|Indians]] regardless of religion. Likewise, conspiracy was also a negative term. The term Hindu Conspiracy was used by the government to actively discredit the Indian revolutionaries. In addition, the jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude Irish person with republican views or associations.


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 14:49, 25 September 2007

The Hindu-German Conspiracy(i), also known as the Hindu Conspiracy, the Indo-German Conspiracy or the Ghadar conspiracy was a plot formulated between Indian Nationalists in United States and Germany, Irish Republicans, and the German Foreign office to initiate a Pan-Indian rebellion against The Raj with German support between 1914 and 1917, during World War I.[1][2][3] Formulated between the Ghadar Party, Indian Nationalists in Germany and India, Sinn Fein and the German Foreign Office through the consulate in San Francisco, the conspiracy planned to foment unrest and trigger a Pan-Indian mutiny in the British Indian Army from Punjab to Singapore, to overthrow The Raj in the Indian subcontinent. The conspiracy was ultimately thwarted as British intelligence successfully infiltrated the Ghadarite movement and American agencies arrested key figures. However, by the time the conspiracy was uncovered and thwarted, the Singapore Garrison had seen a mutiny as had other smaller units and garrisons within India. The conspiracy led to the Lahore conspiracy case in India and the Hindu German Conspiracy Trial in the USA, which at the time was one of the longest and most expensive trial in the country.[4]

Background

Ghadar Party

The Ghadar party was founded in 1913 in the United States under the leadership of Har Dayal and comprised of Immigrant Indian population, including students, labourers, security guards, etc.Prominent Ghadarites included the likes of Tarak Nath Das, Ram Chandra, Barkat Ullah. A large proportion of its members were people from Punjab. Support for Ghadar grew fast, and as its concept and literature began circulating, it rapidly developed a base amongst Indian expatriates in other places. It soon had branches in other countries including Canada, China, most notably in Shanghai, as well as in Japan, Penang, Burma Hong Kong and other places. From these strong points, the Ghadar party begand its work in preparation of organising a revolt within India. The most prominent aim of the Ghadar philosophy was end of British Colonial Authority in India by means of an armed revolution, and for this purpose its foremost purpose was to entice the Indian soldiers to revolt. The modes and aims of the Indian National Congress was viewed by the Ghadar as soft. From November 1913, Ghadar literaure were being printed in Har Dayal's press in San Francisco, producing pamphlets, literature, and the Ghadar Newspaper in Gurumukhi and Urdu, and later in Gujarati. These included sedetionist, socialist and revolutionary literature like Ghadar-di-Gunj (Punjabi:Echoes of Mutiny), Ailan-e-Jung (Declaration of war), Naya Zamana (New Era) etc. Ghadar meetings were held at places around the world including Los Angeles, Oxford, Vienna, Washington and Shanghai.

Towards the end of 1913, the party was established contact with prominent Indian revolutionaries within India, including Rash Behari Bose, Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, and others. An Indian edition of the Ghadar newspaper was established which essentially espoused the philosophy of Anarchism and Revolutionary terrorism, especially against British interests in India. Ghadarite publications reaching Bombay from California were disturbing, as were evidences that emerged from the Delhi Conspiracy trials of Ghadarite incitement and involvement in bombing the Viceroy's procession in 1912, as well as in the pollitical discontent and violence in Punjab. The American State Department was warned to suppress Indian revolutionary activities and Ghadarite publicaions emanating from California, especially San Francisco.[5][6]

Irish involvement

Irish involvement with the Ghadarite plans and efforts predated World War I. The collaborations evolved at least six or seven years before the war, and survived the war. The conspiracy, when it was being plotted, found major support from a network formed by the Indian Nationalists and Irish and Irish-American reporters and newspapers.[7] Har Dayal himself had close Irish links in the Bay Area of San Francisco, John Barry at the San Francisco Bulletin as well as the weekly Gaelic American.[8] Barkatullah, later the Ghadar Vice-President, came to be friends with George Freeman who was the editor of The Gaelic American, and the duo, along with Taraknath Das, later went on to produce the Free Hindustan newspaper modelled on the Gaelic American.[9] Irish Americans provided valuable intelligence, logistics, communication, media, and later, legal support for the German, Indian, and Irish conspirators. Conspiracies and efforts had already been made to smuggle arms into India, including a failed attempt onboard the Moraitis.[10] Those involved in this liaison with the Indian movement, and later involved in the plot, includes major figures of Irish republicanism and Irish-Amierican nationalism including the likes of John Devoy, Joseph McGarrity, Roger Casement, Eamon de Valéra, Father Peter Yorke and Larry de Lacey.[11] These pre-war collusions effectively set-up a network which, as war began in Europe, was tapped into by the German Foregin office. [12]


German Involvement

Around this time in Berlin, prominent Indian students, including the likes of Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Abhinash Bhattacharya, Dr Abdul Hafiz, Padmanabhan Pillai, Gopal Paranjape as well as a number of others, came to form the German Friends of India association, a Revolutionary group that had the active support of Alfred Zimmermann. By 1914, plans for a pan-Indian revolution had been hatched. As the World War I broke out, Germany decided to actively support the Ghadar plan. For this, the links established between Indian and Irish residents in Germany (including Roger Casement) and the German Foreign office was used to tap into the Indo-Irish network in the United States. In September 1914, the German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg authorised German activity against India.[13] The German effort was headed by Max von Oppenheim, archaeologist and the head of the newly formed Intelligence bureau for the east. Upon Oppenheim fell the task of arranging the Indian student groups into a cohesive group. Oppenheim also convinced Har Dayal of the feasibility of the project and able to establish contact with the Ghadar party in the United States. In an October meeting of the Imperial Naval Office, the consulate in San Fransisco was tasked to make contact with Ghadar leaders in California. A young naval lieutenant by the name of Wilhelm von Brincken was able to establish contact, through Tarak Nath Das and an intermediary by the name of Charles Lattendorf, with Ram Chandra.[14]

Conspiracy

In 1913, Hardayal had been arrested in the United states, but he jumped bail and made his way to Switzerland, leaving the party and publications in charge of Ram Chandra. In Switzerland, Har Dayal was able to establish contacts with the Indian In September 1913 a Ghadarite by the name of Mathra Singh had visited Shanghai and worked among the Indian community there for the Ghadarist cause. In January 1914, Mathra Singh visitied India, staying there for two months before returning to Shanghai and further working on the circulating Ghadar literature amongst Indian soldiers through clandestine sources before leaving for Hong Kong. Singhs report on his work and assessment of the situation in India outlined that India was favourable for revolution.[15] The inflammatory passions around the Komagata Maru incidence further served the Ghadarite cause, which a number of Ghadar leaders including Barkatullah and Taraknath Das used as rallying point, successfully bringing into the party's fold a large number of disaffected Indians in North America. By October 1914, large number of Ghadarites had already started returning to India tasked to make contact with Indian revolutionaries and organisations in the country, spread propaganda and literature, as well as arranging to successfully get arms into the country.[16] The first of these was a group of sixty in the steamship SS Korea, which left San Fransisco for Canton on 29 August. On board was a group of sixty Ghadarites led by Jawala Singh. They were to sail to India, where they would be provided with arms, and begin to work towards a revolt. At Canton, more Indians joined the group which, now numbering about a hundred and fifty, sailed for Calcutta in a Japanese vessel. These were to be joined by more Indians arriving in smaller groups. The next ship was SS Siberia sailing on 5 September for Shanghai with some important Ghadar leaders on board. A week later, the Chinyo Maru left with three Indians, followed by eleven onboard the China on 19 September. The Manchuria sailed on 26 September with a group of twenty-four Indians onboard. The SS Tenyo Maru sailed on 21 October with 109 Indians. Three days later the SS Mongolia sailed with a group of 141. The SS Shinyo Maru sailed on 31 October with 6.[17][18][19] However, the Korea's party was uncovered and arrested on arrival at Calcutta. Moreover, the arms that were promised failed to arrive. However, inspite of this, it is accepted that a successful underground network was established between United States, throughShanghai, Swatow, and Siam, into India. Tehl Singh, the Ghadar operative in Shangai, had spent $30,000 helping the revolutionaries get through to India.[20] Working within India, the Ghadarites were able to establish contact with sympathisers within the army. As the conspiracy progressed, the D-Day was set to be February 20, 1915.

Siam-Burma plan

One of the plans that were considered was to intiate a rebellion in Burma (which was a part of British India at the time) from Thailand (Siam), and then use Burma as a base for advancing into India.[21] For these purposes, extensive work was carried out by the Ghadar branched in China,especially Shanghai. Leading Ghadar agents from Shanghai, including Atma Ram,Thakar Singh, Banta Singh and a number of others,along with two of the top leaders from San Francisco, Santokh Singh and Bhagwan Singh, were sent to Thailand. Early in 1915, Atma Ram also visited Calcutta and Punjab and linked up with underground revolutionary organisations there,[22] these included organisations like Jugantar.[23] Herambalal Gupta and the German consul at Chicago arranged to have German operatives, George Paul Boehm, Henry Schult, and Albert Wehde, sent to Siam with the express purpose of training the Indians. In the meantime, corresponding with Virendranath Chattopadhyaya in Berlin, arrangements were made to have arms shipped into India through the two or three places along the eastern coast like Hatia on Chittagong coast, Raimangal in the Sunderbans and Balasore in Orissa. Santokh Singh left Siam for Shanghai. From here, he was to send two expeditions, one to reach the Indian border via Yunnan and the other to penetrate upper Burma and join with revolutionary elements there.[24]

Pan-Indian Mutiny

By the start of 1915, large number of Ghadarites (nearly 8000 in the Punjab province alone by some estimates)[25][26] had returned to India.However, they were not assigned a central leadership and begun their work on an ad hoc basis. Although some were rounded up by the police on suspicion, large numbers remained at large and began establishing contacts with garrisons at major cities inckuding Lahore, Ferozepur, Rawalpindi. In Bengal, the Jugantar, through Jatin Mukherjee,establsihed contacts with the garrison at Fort William in Calcutta.[27] Various plans had been made to attack the military arsenal at Mian Meer near Lahore, a general rising on 15 November 1914,Another plan, a group of Sikh Soldiers, the manjha jatha, planned to start a mutiny in the 23rd Cavalry at the Lahore cantonment on the 26 November. A further plan called for the mutiny to start on 30 November from Ferozepur under Nidham Singh.[28] The Jugantar group had already begun in Bengal, and in August 1914 had seized a large consignment of the Rodda company's guns and ammunition. A number of political dacoities were carried out in Calcutta in December to obtain funds. These random acts and efforts of rebellion begun by Ghadar operatives returning to India and Indian underground organisations soon came under a unified direction under Rash Behari Bose arranging the movement in North India, along with Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, a leading Ghadarite who returned to India, in Maharashtra, and Sachindranath Sanyal operating from Benares.[29][30] A plan was made for a unified general uprising, with the date set for 21 February, 1915.[31]

Procuring arms

The Korea debacle had led to the organisation in the US being transferred to Herambalal Gupta on the insistence of Zimmermann. One of the first of Gupta's ventures was to arrange for men and arms. While the former resource was in plentiful supply with more and more Indians coming forward to join the Ghadarite cause, obtaining arms proved to be more difficult.

Efforts in China and Japan

For this purpose, negotiations began with the Chinese government through James Dietrich, who hold Sun Yat Sen's power of attorney, to buy a million rifles already in South China. However, the deal fell through when it was learnt that the weapons were flintlocks and muzzle loaders. From China, Gupta proceeded to Japan to try and procure arms, as well as try and enlist Japanese support for the Indian movement. However, in Japan, he was forced into hiding within forty-eight hours when he learnt the Japanese planned to hand him over to the British.[32]

Efforts to enlist Chinese and Japanese help continued. The Indian Nobel Laureate and nationalist poet Rabindranath Tagore, a strong supporter of Pan-Asianism, is known to have interviewed the then Japanese premier Count Terauchi as well as Count Okuma, a former premier, to enlist support for the Ghadarite movement.[33] Tarak Nath Das also urged for a Japanese alliance with Germany on the grounds that American war preparation may actually be directed against Japan.[34] In China, with ascendancy of Li Yuanhong to Presidency in 1916, efforts were reopened through his former Private Secretary who was resident in the United States at the time. The proposed agreement offered China German military assistence and right to one-tenth of the materiel shipped to India if she allowed her borders to be used for shipping arms to India. However, this negotiations were also unsuccessful on he face of Sun Yat Sen's opposition to an alliance with Germany.[35]

The Annie Larsen affair

Main article: The Annie Larsen affair

An elaborate plan to ship arms from the United States and East Asia was also ventured upon, which remains one of the most famous aspects of the conspiracy. However, although it was meant to supply the mutiny planned for February 1915, the actual shipment was not dispatched till June that year, by which time the plot for mutiny had been uncovered and major leaders in India either arrested or gone into hiding. The shipment itself had to return to the United states after unsuccessful attempts to reach South East Asia, where it was captured by US customs. In India, a still optimistic Bagha Jatin went to his death in a desperate last stand against the armed police at Balasore in September 1915 while awaiting the arrival of the same shipment.

In 1914, with the approval of the German vice-counsel E.H von Schack in San Fransisco, arrangements for funds and armaments had been secured. Ram Chandra was given a monthly payment of $1000. At the same time $200,000 worth of small arms and ammunition was acquired by the German military attache Captain Franz von Papen through a Krupp agent by the name of Hans Tauscher. In the meantime, Papen arranged for Joseph McGarrity to make the necessary arrangements for shipping the arms purchase from New York to Galveston via the Mallory Steamship Company, an Irish-American shipping firm. From Galveston the guns were sent by train to San Diego, from where they were to be shipped to India via Burma.However, Charles Martinez, a customs official who had arranged the shipment to San Diego, was not told of the true destination, and hired the schooner Annie Larsen. [36][37] For this purpose, an elaborate deception was hatched to convey the idea that the arms were meant for the warring factions in Mexico. J Clyde Hizar, a Colorado attorney in charge of placing the arms on board the Annie Larsen, posed as a representative for the Carranza Faction.This muse was successful enough that the rival Villa faction offered $15000 to divert the shipment to a Villa controlled port.[38]

However, ominously for the plot the Annie Larsen was not suitable for a trans-Pacific voyage. Frederick Jebsen, a German reserve naval officer with close connections to the German embassy, arranged for another ship, the SS Maverick, to be purchased under the illusion that it was to be used by "American-Asiatic Oil Company", a fake oil-trading company, and was to deploy between China and Borneo. The plan was for the Maverick to leave empty from San Pedro around the same time as The Annie Larsen leaves San Diego fully loaded. The two would rendevouz off Socorro Island off Mexico. The Annie Larsen would transfer its shipment to the Maverick which would then proceed towards South-East Asia.[39][40] For this purpose, Jebsen also established, taking his attorney Ray Howard as partner, a fake company to hide the true ownership of the ship.[41][42] The Maverick received a crew composed of sailors from two German ships interned at San Francisco. An American by the name of John B. Starr-Hunt served as supercargo on the Maverick, and was under orders to scuttle the ship if challenged by Allied warships.[43] The impression at the docks was that the ship was to relieve congestion in the East Indian Coconut industry, in Java and Borneo.

The Annie Larsen sailed for Topolobampo on 8 March 1915 under Captain Plaul Schlueter for rendevouz with the SS Maverick. Also placed on board was a person by the name of Walter Page as supercargo. Page's real identity was L. Othmer, the Captain of the German bark Atlas which had earlier been interned by the U.S. Government in San Francisco. Page was given complete authority over the ship's movement and he set sail for Socorro Island, off Baja California.[44][45]

However, it was at this statge the plan started falling apart. The Maverick, which was in Dry Dock at the time, could not sail for another month. Even during this time, rumours abounded that it was to be used to smuggle arms into South-east Asia. The ship was searched a number of times by customs and security agents, who only found the ship's empty hold. Immediately before it left, it received an additional crew of five Indian Ghadar activists carrying fake Persian passports. They carried with themselves large amounts of Ghadarite literature, and were tasked by Ram Chandra to establish contacts with Indian revolutionaries and arrange for the arms to be transported inland.[46][47] However, awaiting for the Maverick for nearly a month, the Annie Larsen ran out of fresh water and, without a condenser on board, was forced to head for the mainland of Mexico. Arriving at the rendevouz point, the Maverick was informed of the Annie Larsens departure by a two-man crew left behind by Page. The Maverick waited for twenty-nine days the Schooner's return. During this time, it was visited by the HMS Kent. The Ghadar agents were forced to burn the revolutionary literature in the Boiler room while the Kents crew searched the ship. A subsequent visit by an American warship also revealed nothing save the ship's empty hold.[48][49]

The Annie Larsen sailed to Acapulco to replenishment of its supplies. However, here, it faced trouble as three of the crew members refused to sail in the ship claiming it was not seaworthy. Captain Sheultzer was able to successfully appeal for help from the USS Yorktown which was in the area. Its contraband cargo was not discovered by the Yorktown's boarding party. Allowed to use the Yorktowns wireless, the German crew were able to notify the German Consulate of their position and of the failed rendervouz.[50] Sailing from Acapulco, the Annie Larsen made for Socorro Island again. However, in adverse weather, this attempt failed as well, and after twenty-two days Scheultzer gave up, chosing to make for the northern port of Hoquiam, Washington.[51][44]

Returning to San Diego after failing to meet the Annie Larsen, the Maverick was directed by Fred Jebsen to proceed to Hilo, Hawai, where it was redirected to Johnston Island by the German consulate for a second effort to rendevouz with the Annie Larsen. However, this failed too and it was subsequently directed to Anjer, Java.[52][53] At Anjer, a German Operative by the name of Theodre Helfrichs was instructed to dispose of the ship. However, it was seized by Dutch authorities. Starr-Hunt and four of the Ghadarites attempted to flee in a ship, but they were captured by the British cruiser HMS Newcastle. Taken to Singapore, Starr-Hunt confessed his role in the plot.[54]

In the meantime, through intelligence sources arising from both British, Irish and Mexican sources, the Justice department had a clear picture of the conspiracy and the true purposes of the Maverick and the Annie Larsen.[55] On 29 June, 1915, the Annie Larsen was raided at Hoquiam and its contraband cargo seized.[44][56] However, Page was able to escaped and later made for Germany. The Annie Larsen's Cargo was sold at an auction despite the German Ambassador Count Johann von Bernstoff's attempts to take possession insisting they were meant for German East Africa.[57]

Scutlling the mutiny

Counter intelligence

However, military intelligence had infiltrated the plot from the time the first of the conspirators left for India and Singapore and was aware of the details of the conspiracy.[58] Sensing that their plans had been compromised, D-day was brought forward, but even these plans found their way to the intelligence. Plans for revolt by the 130th Baluchi Regiment at Rangoon on 21 January were thwarted.

Mutiny at Singapore

Main article: 1915 Singapore mutiny

On the 15th of February, the supposed day for the revolt, the 5th Light Infantry stationed at Singapore was the only unit to mutiny as the Raj responded with large scale arrests and suppression of the attempted revolts by the 26 Punjab regiment, 7 Rajput regiment, 130 Baluch regiment, 24 Jat Artillery and others. Mutinies in Firozpur, Mian Mir Lahore, Agra were suppressed and the key leaders of the conspiracy were arrested, while some managed to escape or evade arrest. Kartar Singh Sarabha, after escaping from Lahore, was arrested from Varanasi and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle from Meerut. Rash Behari Bose fled to Japan, a number of people including Giani Pritam Singh, Swami Satyananda Puri and others fled to Thailand or other sympathetic nations.

Bagha Jatin

Main article: Bagha Jatin

Kabul mission

Main article: Provisional Government of India

After effects

Jallianwallahbagh

Main articles: Rowlatt Act and Amritsar Massacre

Irish mutiny in India

Lahore Conspiracy trial

Main article: Lahore Conspiracy trial

In April 1915, the first trials of two hundred and ninetyone Ghadarites for their role in the conspiracy opened in Lahore. Of these The forty two were sentenced to death while another hundred and fourteen were sentenced to were transportation for life.

Hindu German Conspiracy Trial

Main article: Hindu German Conspiracy Trial

World War II

Main articles: Indian Independence League and Indian National Army

A number of prominent Ghadarites who fled the subcontinent in 1915 were instrumental in seeking Axis support, one of the most famous of which saw the formation of the Indian Independence League and ultimately the Indian National Army in South East Asia.

See also: Indische Legion

Note on the name

Although the conspiracy was called the Hindu-German conspiracy, the conspiracy involved not only Hindus and Germans, but also substantial numbers of Mohamedans and Punjabis as well, along with a strong Irish support that predated German involvement . The term Hindu was used commonly in opprobrium in America to identify Indians regardless of religion. Likewise, conspiracy was also a negative term. The term Hindu Conspiracy was used by the government to actively discredit the Indian revolutionaries. In addition, the jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude Irish person with republican views or associations.

See also

Template:IndiaFreedom

Notes

  1. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  2. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
  3. ^ Brown 1948, p. 300
  4. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  5. ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 146
  6. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 439
  7. ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 146
  8. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  9. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  10. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 82
  11. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  12. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 84
  13. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 251
  14. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
  15. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 442
  16. ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 148
  17. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 442
  18. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 251
  19. ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 148
  20. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  21. ^ Majumdar 1971, p. 382
  22. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 442
  23. ^ Puri 1980, p. 60
  24. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 443
  25. ^ Gupta 1997, p. 12
  26. ^ Chhabra 2005, p. 597
  27. ^ Gupta 1997, p. 11,12
  28. ^ Deepak 1999, p. 443
  29. ^ Puri 1980, p. 60
  30. ^ Gupta 1997, p. 11,12
  31. ^ Gupta 1997, p. 11,12
  32. ^ Brown 1948, p. 301
  33. ^ Brown 1948, p. 306
  34. ^ Brown 1948, p. 306
  35. ^ Brown 1948, p. 307
  36. ^ Plowman 2003, p. 90
  37. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
  38. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
  39. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 253
  40. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  41. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 255
  42. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  43. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  44. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  45. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  46. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  47. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  48. ^ Brown 1948, p. 303
  49. ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
  50. ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
  51. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  52. ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
  53. ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
  54. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  55. ^ Hoover 1985, p. 256
  56. ^ Brown 1948, p. 304
  57. ^ {Popplewell 1995, p. 168

References

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