Yom Kippur: Difference between revisions

Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur
	Yom Kippur is traditionally spent in the synagogue, fasting and praying. Painting by Maurycy Gottlieb (1878).
Official name	Hebrew: יוֹם כִּפּוּר or יום הכיפורים
Also called	Day of Atonement
Observed by	Judaism and Jews
Type	Jewish
Significance	Day of Atonement for sins, and for the Golden calf.
Observances	Fasting, prayer
Date	10th day of Tishrei
2025 date	date missing (please add)
Related to	Rosh Hashanah, which precedes Yom Kippur, and Sukkot, which follows Yom Kippur.

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Yom Kippur (IPA: [jɔm ˈkɪpər]; Hebrew: יוֹם כִּפּוּר, IPA: [ˈjɔm kiˈpur]), meaning Day of Atonement, is the late rabbinic name^[1] of a Jewish holiday occurring on the tenth day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei^[2] (the seventh month^[3]); the biblical term for the day is Yom haKippurim, meaning Day of the Atonements. Its central theme is atonement from sins against God and one's fellow man; it is one of the Yamim Noraim ("Days of Awe"), and is traditionally commemorated by a 25-hour fast and intensive prayer.

In the Bible

The bible specifies regulations for the day of Atonement in the Priestly Code and Holiness Code of the Torah, primarily in a single chapter of Leviticus^[4]; very few regulations concerning the day are found elsewhere that are not in that chapter of Leviticus, although there is one requirement for the ritual sacrifice of a bullock and seven lambs on that day^[5], while the chapter of Leviticus does not mention lambs at all. The main regulations of the day mention, among other things, an altar described as being in front of Yahweh^[6]; the Mishnah takes this altar to be the golden altar for incense^[7], but scholars now believe it refers to the bronze altar on which sacrifices were made^[8], not least because the altar for incense appears to have been a later addition to the Priestly Code, is not mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel, and its constructuion is not mentioned by the Septuagint (unlike the masoretic text^[9]^[10])^[11].

According to the main biblical regulations associated with the day of Atonement, the Jewish High Priest must not enter the Holy of Holies, or else he will die^[12], although he can enter the Holy of Holies if he offers a bullock as a sin offering (chatat) and a ram as a whole offering (olah)^[13]; as part of this process, the High Priest must wash himself in water, and then put on linen garments, including a coat, breeches, girdle, and turban^[14], to suggest humility^[15]. The Israelites themselves were required by these regulations to contribute two kids as a sin offering, and another ram as a whole offering^[16], and the High Priest was to then offer the bullock as a sin offering and make an atonement for himself and his immediate household^[17]. The two kids were then to be presented^[18] and divided by cleromancy between Yahweh and Azazel^[19], with the one allotted to Yahweh being immediately sacrificed by the High Priest^[20]; the remaining kid was to be left alive, so that an atonement can be made by it^[21].

After making an atonement for himself and his immediate household, the High Priest was required by the regulations to slaughter the bullock^[22]. The biblical requirements state that the High Priest then had to take a censer full of hot coal from the altar in front of Yahweh, and fill his hands with finely ground incense^[23], and take them into the Holy of Holies, and place the incense on the coals so that a cloud covered the Ark of the Covenant, so that the High priest does not die^[24]. Having done this, the High Priest was to sprinkle some of the bullock's blood onto the mercy seat seven times, using his finger^[25]; the High Priest was then to kill the kid allotted to Yahweh, and also sprinkle its blood onto the mercy seat, seven times with his finger^[26]. The High Priest was required to then make an atonement for the ritual impurity arising from the Israelites, which had been brought to the Holy Place and the Tabernacle^[27]; no-one was permitted within the Tabernacle while the high priest was performing these rituals^[28]. Having made an atonement for the altar in front of Yahweh, the blood of the kid allotted to Yahweh and of the bullock was to be poured around it by the High Priest^[29], and sprinkled upon it seven times with his finger, to ritually purify it from the ritual impurity of the Israelites^[30].

The regulations state that the remaining kid was now to be brought forwards alive^[31], and the High Priest to lay his hands upon its head, confessing upon it the iniquities of the Israelites, which the text states would be placed upon its head as a result^[32]; laden with these sins, in the view of the text, the animal was to be taken into the wilderness by a fit man^[33], into an uninhabited land^[34]. The high priest was compelled to then enter the Tabernacle, remove his linen garments^[35], wash himself in the Holy Place, and put on his ordinary garments^[36]. Having changed clothes, the High Priest was then required by the regulations to sacrifice the two rams as whole offerings^[37], and burn the fat from the carcasses of the bullock and the kid allocated to Yahweh, upon the altar, as with other sin offerings^[38]; the remainder of the carcasses of the kid and of the bullock were to be burnt outside the camp, again like other sin offerings^[39]. The person who had lead away the kid allocated to Azazel, and the person who had burnt the carcasses of the bullock and the kid allocated to Yahweh (because the High Priest couldn't leave the camp), were required to wash themselves and their clothes, before they could re-enter the camp^[40]^[41]. These regulations conclude by stating that these rituals were to occur on the 10th day of the 7th month^[42], which was to be a Sabbath, on which rest was compulsory^[43].

Origin

According to textual scholars, the biblical regulations covering Yom Kippur are spliced together from multiple source texts^[44]^[45], most obviously demonstrated with the duplication of the confession over the bullock^[46], and the incongruity in one verse stating that the high priest shouldn't enter the Holy of Holies (with the inference that there are exceptions for certain explicitly identified festivals)^[47], and the next verse indicating that they can enter whenever they wish (as long as a specific ritual is carried out first)^[48]. Although Rashi tried to find a harmonistic explanation for this incongruity, the Leviticus Rabbah maintains that it was indeed the case that the high priest could enter at any time if these rituals were carried out^[49]. Textual scholars argue that the ritual is composed from three sources, and a couple of redactional additions^[50]^[51]:

prerequisite rituals before the high priest can enter the Holy of Holies (on any occasion), namely a sin offering and a whole offering, followed by the filling of the Holy of Holies with a cloud of incense while wearing linen garments^[52]
regulations which establish an annual day of fasting and rest, during which the sanctuary and people are purified, without stating the ritual for doing so^[53]; this regulation is very similar to the one in the Holiness Code^[54]
later elaborations of the ceremony^[55], which include the sprinkling of the blood on the mercy seat, and the use of a scapegoat sent to Azazel; the same source also being responsible for small alterations to related regulations^[56]
the redactional additions^[57]

According to biblical scholars, the original ceremony was simply the ritual purification of the sanctuary from any accidental ritual impurity, at the start of each new year, as seen in the Book of Ezekiel^[58], which textual scholars date to before the priestly source, but after JE^[59]^[60]. According to the Book of Ezekiel, the sanctuary was to be cleansed by the sprinkling of bullock's blood, on the first day of the first and of the seventh months^[61] - near the start of the Civil year and of the Ecclesiastical year, respectively; although the masoretic text of the Book of Ezekiel has the second of these cleansings on the seventh of the first month, biblical scholars regard the Septuagint, which has the second cleaning as being the first of the seventh month, as being more accurate here^[62]. It appears that during the period that the Holiness Code and the Book of Ezekiel were written, the new year began on the tenth day of the seventh month^[63]^[64], and thus biblical scholars believe that by the time the Priestly Code was compiled, the date of the new year and of the day of atonement had swapped around^[65].

In the Talmud

The Mishnah enriches the ceremonial of the Day of Atonement by the addition of elements which have no Scriptural basis^[66], some of the simplest being the High Priest having to tie a red band around the kid allotted to Azazel once the allotment was completed, and the requirement for the removal of the incense and coals from the Holy of Holies once the ceremony was over. More significantly, the High Priest was required to read the Torah portions relating to the day just before changing from the linen garments to his ordinary ones^[67], and he was required to carry out the normal evening and morning sacrifices (tamid), which would ordinarily have been carried out by a lesser priest. The evening and morning sacrifices couldn't be carried out in the linen garments, and thus the High Priest was compelled to change garments several times:

into the golden garments for the standard morning sacrifice
from the golden garments into the linen ones to enter the Holy of Holies
from the linen garments into golden ones to perform the whole offerings
from the golden garments back into the linen garments to remove the incense and shovel from the Holy of Holies
from the linen garments into golden ones to perform the standard evening sacrifice
from the golden garments at the end of the day

The Mishnah states that special vessels were used by the High Priest to contain the sacrificial blood, the incense, and the hot coals, with a series of bowls for the former, and a shovel, rather than censer, for the latter. A ritual bath was also constructed in the Temple courtyard, in the days of the Second Temple, so that the priest could wash himself; in addition to the biblical requirement of washing during the change from the linen to the golden garments, the High Priest was also compelled to immerse in the ritual bath during every other garment change, and before the first sacrifice of the day, as well as wash his hands and feet before removing a garment and after putting on the new one, resulting in having to wash them on ten occasions.

The biblical order of events for entering the Holy of Holies was considered inviolable, and as a result the High Priest was required to fill his hands with incense and put it into a vessel after he had already picked up the shovel of coals, rather than filling the vessel first. Keeping the shovel balanced without dropping any of the coal upon it, while filling the hands with incense, was considered by the Talmud to have been the most physically demanding part of the service, as the High Priest might sometimes have to resort to using his armpit or teeth to keep the shovel steady; the Talmud reports that in the days of the Second Temple, due to the complexity of this task, the High Priest would often practice the incense ritual beforehand in the Avitnas chamber.

The Mishnah is also very specific about various details which the bible presents in general terms. Exact geographic specifications are given, with the kids being selected, confessed over, and lead away at the Nikanor Gate, which was at the east of the Temple Courtyard, the reading of the Torah portions for the day having to occur in the Women's Courtyard (Ezrat Nashim), and the place outside the camp where the carcasses were burnt being standardised at a single location, which came to be known as the Place of the Ashes (Beit haDeshen). The Mishnah is no less precise about the sacrifices themselves, requiring the whole offerings to be slaughtered on the north side of the altar, and their blood to be dashed on its northeast and southwest corners, and the mixed blood of the bullock and kid allotted to Yahweh being smeared on the four corners of the altar, starting from the northeastern corner. The wording of each of the confessions was also fixed at the form given by the Mishnah^[68], and the congregation were compelled to prostrate themselves whenever the Tetragrammaton was mentioned^[69].

Although not mentioned by the biblical text, the Mishnah states that the whole offerings were accompanied by grain offerings and libations of wine, like other whole offerings. The Mishnah also states that before the fat of the sin offerings (the bullock and kid allotted to Yahweh) were burnt, while high priest intertwined them, while waiting for word that the kid allotted to Azazel had been killed; the Mishnah recounts that to ensure that the kid allotted to Azazel did not return to human habitation, it was lead off a specific cliff.

The Mishnah reports that the ceremony was preceded by a great deal of paranoia about whether the High Priest would complete the rituals of the day, especially the parts where he is officiating in the Holy of Holies, without suffering any misfortune. Many ritual precautions were taken, with much preparation in the preceding week^[70], and the High Priest was sequestered in the Parhedrin chamber immediately prior to the ceremony, where he reviewed the service with the Temple sages, and was sprinkled with spring water containing the ashes of the Red Heifer to ensure ritual purity. The Ark went missing before the Second Temple was constructed, but the High Priests still carried out the ritual as if it was present, sprinkling the blood where it would have been, and placing the coals and incense there as if to create a cloud to hide it. Despite the solemnity of the day, the relief upon its successful conclusion was so great, according to the Mishnah, that the High Priest was escorted home and congratulated by his friends, whom in turn the priest would traditionally entertain in the evening with a feast^[71].

In Islamic tradition

According to Islamic records, in pre-Islamic times a fast was traditionally observed in Mecca, on the tenth day of the first month of the year, known as Ashura (meaning tenth); these records state that when Muhammed travelled to Medina, he noticed that the Jews in the area were fasting on the same day, which suggests that the Ashura fast was connected to Yom Kippur, and Muhammed consequently instituted mandatory annual fasting during Ashura among his followers. After the introduction of Islam, intercalation into the lunar calendar was banned, and it is prohibited by the Qu'ran^[72], resulting in the gradual shift of the start of the 254 day Islamic year with respect to the solar year; the Hebrew Calendar retains intercalation, and thus Ashura and Yom Kippur generally no longer coincide.

Islamic tradition reports that several biblical (and Qu'ranic) events occurred historically at Ashura:

The deliverance of Noah from the flood
Abraham being saved from the fire of Nimrod
Jacob's blindness being healed, and his being brought to Joseph
Job being healed from his illness
Moses being saved from the army of Pharaoh
The Ascension of Jesus

However, numerous Sunni traditions in Sahih Muslim and Sahih Bukhari report that Muhammed later retracted the mandation of fasting at Ashura, in favour of mandating fasting during Ramadan; Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, in his commentary on Bukhari's collection, states that the retraction occurred a year after Muhammed migrated to Medina. In modern times, both of the two main divisions of Islam view fasting during Ashura as neither obligatory nor forbidden, though Sunni tradition regards it as desirable behaviour, and the Shia frown upon the practice. Nevertheless, it is the Shia tradition which views Ashura as having the greater significance; it is traditionally considered to have also been the date of the killing of Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammed's grandson, whom Shia consider to be his rightful heir. Both traditions mourn during the day and offer laments, but more public expressions of sorrow can be found in the Shia tradition.

In modern Judaism

In most forms of modern Judaism, Yom Kippur is considered to be one of the holiest and most solemn days of the year; synagogue attendance is often double or triple the normal amount, and many otherwise secular Jews observe elements of the holiday, including the fast. In Israel, where a number of national laws are framed by Orthodox Judaism, on Yom Kippur there is no public transportation, television is not broadcast, and the airports are closed^[73], meaning that non-religious denizens of Israel have less choice to ignore the holiday; publicly ignoring the holiday, for example by eating or driving a motor vehicle, is regarded by religious Israelis as taboo, meaning that the roads are very empty, which several secular Israelis take advantage of by riding bicycles, especially during the eve of Yom Kippur^[74].

Traditional domestic practices

Five prohibitions are traditionally observed on Yom Kippur, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition^[75]:

Not eating or drinking
Not wearing leather shoes
Not bathing/washing
Not anointing oneself with oil
Not having marital relations

Total abstention from food and drink usually begins half-an-hour before sundown (called tosefet Yom Kippur), and ends after nightfall the following day; the oral canon imposes this additional requirement to fast for part of the previous day. Although the fast is required of all healthy adults, in certain cases, in which the person fasting would be harmed, it may be forbidden by the oral regulations. Virtually all Jewish holidays involve a ritual feast, but since Yom Kippur involves fasting, Jewish law requires one to eat a large and festive meal on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, after the mincha prayer is given; traditional foods consumed during the festive meal include kreplach and rice, and many groups also have the custom of consuming a further meal involving fish, before the main festive meal.

Variations on the traditions for Yom Kippur exist between different Jewish communities. For example, Sephardic Jews (Jews of Spanish, Portuguese and North African descent) refer to this holiday as the White Fast, since it is traditional among them to wear only white clothing on this day, displaying desire to have their sins forgiven; the Talmud interprets the Torah as using a change of colour from red to white for the purpose of symbolising the forgiving of sins. Many men in Orthodox Judaism immerse themselves in a mikvah on the evening before Yom Kippur.

Traditionally, Yom Kippur is considered to have been founded when Moses received the second set of Ten Commandments; according to traditional Jewish belief, the Israelites were at this time granted atonement for the sin involved in the episode of the Golden Calf^[76]. The Mishnah emphasises that Yom Kippur does not provide absolution from sins against a fellow man unless they had been pardoned by the victim themselves^[77], and consequently it is a traditional custom to ensure that all feuds and disputes are terminated by the end of the preceding day^[78]

Prayer services

Unlike all other evening services in the year, during the evening prayers on Yom Kippur the men, and in Reform and Conservative Judaism sometimes women also, don a tallit (a prayer garment that especially has four corners); the traditional explanation is that the Divine Presence is especially present on Yom Kippur, and the tallit is worn in its honour, but there are many other contemporary explanations. Many married men also wear a kittel - a white shroud-like garment - to symbolize inner ritual purity.

In Jewish thought, days are regarded as starting during the evening, and thus it is the evening prayer service that begins the office of Yom Kippur. The first prayer of the day is the Kol Nidre, which tradition dictates must be recited before sunset^[79], and it is then followed by the evening prayers (ma'ariv or arvith). Litanies and petitions of forgiveness are heavily woven into the Yom Kippur liturgy, and an extended set is included in the evening prayers, and they also precede the service for the following morning^[80]. As with all other holidays, an added prayer (musaf, meaning added) follows the morning service, and is itself followed by the afternoon prayer (mincha), which includes a reading (Haftarah) of the Book of Jonah (as it describes God's willingness to forgive those who repent), and is then followed by a special prayer specifically for Yom Kippur (the ne'ilah); the devotions are continuous from morning until the following evening^[81].

In the added prayer (the musaf), a section known as the Avodah (meaning service), is often present in the most traditional services; the Avodah goes into great detail about the mishnaic regulations for the day, which also features less prominently in other parts of the liturgy, and is traditionally a major part of religious thought during the holiday. The main section of the Avodah is the repetition of the three confessions given by the Mishnah, requesting forgiveness first for the High Priest and his immediate family, then or the priestly caste in general, and finally for all of the Israelites; on each occasion the priest recites a biblical passage:

for on this day atonement shall be made for you, to atone for you for all your sins, before Yahweh you shall be purified^[82]

In Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, it is usually the case that the entire congregation would entirely prostrate themselves when the Tetragrammaton is pronounced during these three confessions in the Avodah, but in some Conservative synagogues, only the Hazzan engages in full prostration. In many congregations these are the only occasions in the whole year that the congregation would fully prostrate themselves during a religious service; a few congregations also prostrate themselves during the Alenu prayer for Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah, and there is also an exception among Yemenite Jews and talmedhei haRambam, who sometimes prostrate themselves on several other occasions during the year. Some traditions also include hand gestures mimiming the sprinkling of sacrificial blood, at the points appropriate to the biblical ritual for the day.

A variety of liturgical poems are also included in the service, one of the most common being a poem about the High Priest having a radiant countenance after exiting the Holy of Holies; traditionally this is viewed as having been quite visible emission of light, in a manner similar to the traditional Jewish interpretations of the effect of Mount Sinai on Moses (medieval Christian Bibles instead portrayed Moses as having gained horns). Prayers for the speedy rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship are often also included in services for Orthodox Judaism, but those for Conservative Judaism usually only ask for the rebuilding of the Temple.

More liberal/less traditional groups within Judaism follow the traditional practices to varying degrees, but one of the most obvious differences is that the Avodah is usually omitted entirely, especially among Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, who view it as being inconsistent with modern sensibilities.

Yom Kippur services come to an end with a recitation of the Shema Yisrael and the blowing of the shofar, which also marks the conclusion of the fast.

Eschatological Connections

Early Judaism shared with the Assyrians the belief that the first day of the new year was the day on which the destiny of each human was fixed^[83]^[84]; this view is expressed when the Targum portrays the heavenly session at the start of the Book of Job^[85] as being the first day in the year. The Talmud states that on the first of the year each creature had to pass before God, who would on the same day have received Satan's report against them^[86]; here, like the Book of Job, Satan takes the role of prosecutor rather than villain.

Gradually the belief became transferred to Yom Kippur rather than the new year's day^[87]. The Talmud states that there were three books, recording the minute details of everyone's life, which were opened on the new year's day - one for the thoroughly wicked, another for the thoroughly pious, and the third for everyone who was somewhere in between^[88]. The first two, according to the Talmud, would have their fates determined immediately, but the book for the third group would be left open until the Day of Atonement, and only then would the fates of everyone be sealed^[89]

In Christianity

In Christianity the phrase Day of Atonement is usually taken to refer to a more singular eschatological event also known as Judgement Day, and most Christians ignore Yom Kippur as they do not consider it to be part of the New Covenant. However, many Christian theologians and scholars acknowledge that there is a strong connection between the two days; for example, one Christian theologian argues that Yom Kippur is the foreshadowing pre-text of Christ's future judgement of mankind^[90]

In the Eastern Orthodox church, the Fast Day of the Exhaltation of the Holy Cross is observed on October 14 in the Julian Calendar; the Eastern Orthodox church uses the Julian calendar, rather than the Gregorian Calendar used by most western governments and companies. The date of the feast roughly coincides with the date of Yom Kippur (which is fixed on the Hebrew Calendar, but oscillates with respect to the Julian and Gregorian Calendars), and a Roman Catholic priest - Rev. Patrick Reardon - argues that it is obviously derived from Yom Kippur, and that everyone realises this^[91]. The Amish Christians also observe a Fast Day, on September 11 in the Gregorian calendar, which similarly coincides roughly with Yom Kippur^[92]

References

^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Atonement: Day Of
^ Biblical Holidays: The Hebrew Calendar
^ Leviticus 16
^ Numbers 29:7–11
^ Leviticus 16:18
^ Yoma 5:5
^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
^ Exodus 37:25–28
^ the two texts can be compared here (septuagint on left, masoretic on right)
^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
^ Leviticus 16:2
^ Leviticus 16:3
^ Leviticus 16:4
^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
^ Leviticus 16:5
^ Leviticus 16:6
^ Leviticus 16:7
^ Leviticus 16:8
^ Leviticus 16:9
^ Leviticus 16:10
^ Leviticus 16:11
^ Leviticus 16:12
^ Leviticus 16:13
^ Leviticus 16:14
^ Leviticus 16:15
^ Leviticus 16:16
^ Leviticus 16:17
^ Leviticus 16:18
^ Leviticus 16:19
^ Leviticus 16:20
^ Leviticus 16:21
^ Leviticus 16:21
^ Leviticus 16:22
^ Leviticus 16:23
^ Leviticus 16:24
^ Leviticus 16:24
^ Leviticus 16:25
^ Leviticus 16:27
^ Leviticus 16:26
^ Leviticus 16:28
^ Leviticus 16:29
^ Leviticus 16:31
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
^ Leviticus 16:6 and Leviticus 16:6
^ Leviticus 16:2
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Leviticus Rabbah 21
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
^ Leviticus 16:1, 16:3–4, 16:12–13, 16:34 (b)
^ Leviticus 16:29–34 (a)
^ Leviticus 23:27–31
^ Leviticus 16:5, 16:7–10, 16:14–28
^ Exodus 30:10, Leviticus 25:9
^ Leviticus 16:2, 16:6, 16:11
^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement
^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Priestly Source
^ Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible
^ Ezekiel 45:18–20
^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement
^ Leviticus 25:9
^ Ezekiel 40:1
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Yoma 7:1
^ Yoma 3:8, 4:2, 6:2
^ Yoma 6:2
^ Yoma 1:1-8
^ Yoma 7:4
^ Qu'ran 9:36
^ "Sounds of The City", article from Israel Insider, October 14, 2005
^ "Yom Kippur: Nearly 2,000 injured". Ynetnews. 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
^ Mishnah, 'Yoma 8:1
^ Spiro, Rabbi Ken. Crash Course in Jewish History Part 12 - The Golden Calf. Aish HaTorah. accessed April 29, 2007
^ Yoma 8:9
^ Yoma 87a
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Leviticus 16:30
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
^ Job 1:6
^ Rosh haShanah 1:2
^ Jewish Encyclopedia
^ Rosh haShanah 16b
^ Rosh haShanah 16a
^ Sausa, Diego D. Kippur - the Final Judgment: Apocalyptic Secrets of the Hebrew Sanctuary, Fort Myers, FL: The Vision Press, 2006. ISBN 0-9788346-1-5.
^ [1]
^ [2]

Talmud Bavli, The Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Yoma, Volume I. Mesorah Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-89906-719-0
Talmud Bavli, The Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Yoma, Volume II. Mesorah Publications Ltd. ISBN 1-57819-001-0

External links

[1] Jewish Encyclopedia

[2] Atonement: Day Of

[3] Biblical Holidays: The Hebrew Calendar

[4] Leviticus 16

[5] Numbers 29:7–11

[6] Leviticus 16:18

[7] Yoma 5:5

[8] Peake's commentary on the Bible

[9] Exodus 37:25–28

[10] the two texts can be compared here (septuagint on left, masoretic on right)

[11] Peake's commentary on the Bible

[12] Leviticus 16:2

[13] Leviticus 16:3

[14] Leviticus 16:4

[15] Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica

[16] Leviticus 16:5

[17] Leviticus 16:6

[18] Leviticus 16:7

[19] Leviticus 16:8

[20] Leviticus 16:9

[21] Leviticus 16:10

[22] Leviticus 16:11

[23] Leviticus 16:12

[24] Leviticus 16:13

[25] Leviticus 16:14

[26] Leviticus 16:15

[27] Leviticus 16:16

[28] Leviticus 16:17

[29] Leviticus 16:18

[30] Leviticus 16:19

[31] Leviticus 16:20

[32] Leviticus 16:21

[33] Leviticus 16:21

[34] Leviticus 16:22

[35] Leviticus 16:23

[36] Leviticus 16:24

[37] Leviticus 16:24

[38] Leviticus 16:25

[39] Leviticus 16:27

[40] Leviticus 16:26

[41] Leviticus 16:28

[42] Leviticus 16:29

[43] Leviticus 16:31

[44] Jewish Encyclopedia

[45] Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica

[46] Leviticus 16:6 and Leviticus 16:6

[47] Leviticus 16:2

[48] Jewish Encyclopedia

[49] Leviticus Rabbah 21

[50] Jewish Encyclopedia

[51] Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica

[52] Leviticus 16:1, 16:3–4, 16:12–13, 16:34 (b)

[53] Leviticus 16:29–34 (a)

[54] Leviticus 23:27–31

[55] Leviticus 16:5, 16:7–10, 16:14–28

[56] Exodus 30:10, Leviticus 25:9

[57] Leviticus 16:2, 16:6, 16:11

[58] Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement

[59] Jewish Encyclopedia, Priestly Source

[60] Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible

[61] Ezekiel 45:18–20

[62] Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement

[63] Leviticus 25:9

[64] Ezekiel 40:1

[65] Jewish Encyclopedia

[66] Jewish Encyclopedia

[67] Yoma 7:1

[68] Yoma 3:8, 4:2, 6:2

[69] Yoma 6:2

[70] Yoma 1:1-8

[71] Yoma 7:4

[72] Qu'ran 9:36

[73] "Sounds of The City", article from Israel Insider, October 14, 2005

[74] "Yom Kippur: Nearly 2,000 injured". Ynetnews. 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-02.

[75] Mishnah, 'Yoma 8:1

[76] Spiro, Rabbi Ken. Crash Course in Jewish History Part 12 - The Golden Calf. Aish HaTorah. accessed April 29, 2007

[77] Yoma 8:9

[78] Yoma 87a

[79] Jewish Encyclopedia

[80] Jewish Encyclopedia

[81] Jewish Encyclopedia

[82] Leviticus 16:30

[83] Jewish Encyclopedia

[84] Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica

[85] Job 1:6

[86] Rosh haShanah 1:2

[87] Jewish Encyclopedia

[88] Rosh haShanah 16b

[89] Rosh haShanah 16a

[90] Sausa, Diego D. Kippur - the Final Judgment: Apocalyptic Secrets of the Hebrew Sanctuary, Fort Myers, FL: The Vision Press, 2006. ISBN 0-9788346-1-5.

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