Religion

A religion is defined as a system of attitudes, beliefs, and practices related to the supernatural, but what actually constitutes a religion is subject to much dispute in the field of theology and among ordinary people. Practices based upon religious beliefs typically include:

• Prayer
• Regular assembly with other believers
• Some religions have a clergy, leaders of and helpers to the adherents to the religion
• Some ceremonies or liturgy unique to the set of beliefs
• A means of preserving adherence to the canonical beliefs and practice of that religion
• Codes for behaviour in other aspects of life to ensure consistency with the set of beliefs, i.e a moral code, like the Ten Commandments of the Old Testament, flowing from the beliefs rather than being defined by the beliefs, with said moral code often being elevated to the status of a legal code that is enforced by followers of that religion
• Maintenance and study of scripture, or texts they hold as sacred uniquely different from other writings, and which records or is the basis of the basic beliefs of that religion

Adherents of a particular religion tend to gather together to celebrate holy days, to recite or chant scripture, to pray, to worship, and provide pastoral and spiritual assistance to each other. However, solitary practice of prayer and meditation is often seen to be just as important, as is living out religious convictions in secular activities when in the company of people who are not necessarily adherents to that religion.

What do religions have in common?

The word religion derives from the Latin word religare, meaning "to join, or link" and classically understood to mean the linking of human and divine. Accordingly, one might begin by defining religion as a system of beliefs based on humanity's attempt to explain the universe and natural phenomena, often involving one or more deities or other supernatural forces. Such a system of beliefs can be distinguished from branches of philosophy such as metaphysics which seek to address many of the same questions. However, the philosophy of religion was once regarded as being part of metaphysics.

Two identifying features of all religions are that to some extent they all (a) require faith and (b) seek to organize and guide the thoughts and actions of their adherents. Because of this, some people contend that all religions are to some degree both unempirical (see empiricism) and dogmatic, and are therefore to be distrusted. A system of thought that is purely rational would be a science rather than a religion, and a system that is not in the least dogmatic would be unable to guide its adherents in any way.

Comparing religion to spirituality

Many Westernerners prefer to use the term spirituality rather than religion to describe their form of belief. This may reflect a large-scale disillusionment with organized religion that is occuring in much of the world (see Religion in Modernity). However, proponents of many forms of spirituality seem to represent a movement towards a more "modern" - more tolerant, less counter-factual, and more intuitive - form of religion. This is evidenced by apparently greater religious pluralism and movements such as the ecumenical movement within and transcending Christian denominations. There are corresponding moderating movements within Islam and other religious traditions.

It is possible, and perhaps advised, to keep in mind that there can be a rigid distinction between the mundane, earthly aspects of religion versus the spiritual dimension. People can often gain security from such things as regular attendance at Church, deepening knowledge of Scripture, and the social comfort of fervently agreeing with other believers. This can be, and sometimes is, done without a corresponding spiritual dimension, so that some people could be seen as distant from God, but very 'religious', and conversely those who are spiritually strong may have come to reject much of the recognised paraphernalia of established religion.

Indeed, some would feel that this is central to the beliefs of the founders of some religions: for example, Jesus was very critical of some aspects of established religion, indeed declaring himself as coming for all peoples, 'Jews and Greeks', so transcending even the notion of religion.

People can come to see religion as having no spiritual or supernatural basis, meaning that e.g the modern ceremonies and canons of the Church have almost completely grown away from, or even are contrary to, the original Divine revelation or source. This was true for example in the times of the worst excesses in pre-Reformation Christianity, when 'Indulgences' (excusal of sin) were for sale, and corruption was endemic in Church appointments. Or some would hold that extreme religious practices such as some modern punishments under Sharia law, or the burning of heretics in history, was not at all what God intended us to do.

Religion can therefore for some of the above reasons draw itself into disrepute through the weaknesses of its practitioners, when spirituality can be independently, but invisibly, strong and flourishing.

Religion in Modernity

In the late 19th century and throughout most of the 20th century, religion, especially Christianity, has suffered a great deal of damage, both to its reputation, its power, and its membership. Some historically Christian Western countries, particularly in Europe, show declining recruitment for priesthoods and monasteries, and studies in the UK show a fast-diminishing attendance at churches, synagogues, etc. The demographic group that is "losing faith" the most rapidly is the most well-educated classes. Explanations for this effect include the rising infulence that science wields in modern society, the development of what some call "secular religions" such as Marxism and Anarchism, and the hostility that many feel towards evangelical religions in an age that places greater emphasis on toleration. However, in many parts of the world, religion is far from declining. In the United States and in Latin America, for instance, studies show that religion is as strong as ever, and in the Middle East fundamentalist Islam has been growing rapidly, as attested to by the rise of extremist movements in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, and many other Islamic states. For inquiry as to the causes of this dissilusionment, see "Modern causes for hostility to religion."

Modern causes for hostility to religion

As noted above, in the developed world mainstream religions have been on the decline. This decline is apparently in parallel with increased prosperity and social well-being. The reasons for the decline are complex and ill-understood, but probably include some of the following features.

• Distorted Message

Many religions have (or have had in the past) an extreme approach which produces, or produced, practices which are not acceptable to some people: e.g. extreme restrictions on female dress, and severe restriction on diets and activities on certain days of the week. Some people feel these measures are a distortion of the faith in a God who advocates universal love. Others see the measures as a clear indication that religion is fundamentally misguided.

• Self promotion:

Some individuals are seen to be in positions of power and privilege through promoting their own religious views, e.g. the Bhagwan interlude last century, the Moonie movement, and other cults. This self-promotion has reduced public confidence in anything with a 'religion' label. Similarly, increasing reporting of cases of abuse by the clergy of several religions understandably reduces public confidence in the essential message.

• 'Promoting ignorance' view:

People who are agnostic see early years education in religion and spirituality as a form of brainwashing, and therefore some people concur with the Marxian view that religion is the opium of the people, with addiction fostered when people are too young to choose.

• Common sense objections

Religions postulate a whole other reality which verges on the metaphysical,and even some believers have difficulty in accepting religious assertions about the supernatural realm, and about the afterlife. As a result, people reject the concept of religion in its entirety, and turn their backs on the more ordinary and acceptable beliefs, including a belief in God.

• Objection to superficial features

People can form a negative view, based upon the visible manifestations of religion, e.g. ceremonies which appear pointless and repetitive, arcane clothing, and exclusiveness in membership requirements.

• A view of religion as negative and forbidding

Some assume that religion is the antithesis of prosperity, fun, enjoyment and pleasure. This causes them to reject it entirely, or to see it as only to be turned to in times of trouble. However, many people from many faiths would confirm that their faith has brought them self-fulfillment, peace and joy. Believers therefore feel that faith has the potential to enrich and to expand everyone's life.

Many of these causes for hostility are a reaction to inevitably worldly events and people; religious believers feel that it is sad to see that people are turned away from their spiritual and eternal dimension by concerns which are based on very limited and transitory features.

Accounting for religion

All religions explain the reasons for their existence in their own terms, but modern scholarship has brought new tools to the task of accounting for the phenomenon of religious belief, in naturalistic terms. Especially in the fields of neurology, neuropsychology, and evolutionary psychology, new breakthroughs offer a hope of explaining religion in scientific terms.

Why do religious views dominate so many diverse cultures that have had very little or no contact? Why is some form of religion found in almost every human group? Why do humans often accept counterfactual statements in the name of religion? In neurology, work by scientists such as Ramachandran and his colleagues from the University of California, San Diego [1] suggests that they have found evidence of brain circuitry in the temporal lobe that gives rises to intense religious experiences. In sociology, Rodney Stark has looked at the social forces that have caused religions to grow and the features of religions that have been most successful. For example, Stark, who claims to be an agnostic, hypothesizes that, before Christianity became established as the state religion of Constantinople, Christianity grew rapidly because it provided a practical framework within which non-family members would provide help to other people in the community in a barter system of mutual assistance. [2] In evolutionary psychology, scientists have considered the survival advantages that religion might have given to a community of hunter-gatherers, such as unifying them with in a coherent social group.

Some cognitive psychologists, however, take a completely different approach to explaining religion. Foremost among them is Pascal Boyer, whose book, Religion Explained, lays out the basics of his theory, and attempts to refute several previous and more simple explanations for the phenomenon of religion. Essentially, Mr. Boyer claims that religion is a result of the misfunctioning or overfunctioning of certain subconscious intuitive mental faculties, which normally apply to physics (enabling prediction of the arc a football will take only seconds after its release, for example), and social networks (to keep track of other people's identity, history, loyalty, etc.), and a variety of others.

Where do religions differ?

While Christianity, Judaism, and Islam all claim to worship the same god, each religion has different beliefs. Jews believe that their deity is the one and only God. He created the earth in 7 days and will one day send the Messiah to earth to deliver them from their oppression. Christians accept this same God, but believe that the Christ has already appeared in the form of Jesus. Unlike the Jewish belief of Christ, the Christians proclaim that He came to earth to set God's children free from sin, rather than from oppression. Muslims believe in the same God as the Jews and the Christians. Like the Jews, they differ with the Christians as to the deity of Jesus, but accept the Virgin Birth as a miracle of God. The role of Jesus in Islam is as the Messiah and amongst the distinguished prophets, one of whom is Muhammad, believed to be the final and last messenger.

There are a great many other religions, and a great many ways in which they differ. These differences focus on key differences between the most influential monotheistic religions.

Questions that religions address

Religions are systems of belief which typically answer questions about the following concerns:

• the divine, the sacred and the supernatural,
• our purpose as beings, on earth, goals in this life and possible other states of being like heaven or nirvana,
• what happens to us when we die and how to prepare for that,
• the nature of Deity (or Deities) (cf God) and what She, He, They, It wants from us,
• our relationships with Deity(-ies), the sacred, ancestors, other people, and the world around us, that is, how to behave well in relationship.

Generally, the different religions and the non-religious all have different answers for the above concerns. Hence, scholars can classify a religion according to the characteristic answer the religion gives for the above concerns.

Comparison of sources of authority

In addition, scholars can classify a religion according to the nature of the authority to which the religion refers.

• Universal religions have no prophetic founder. For example, Hinduism claims to be the science of the spirit. The various gods of Hinduism are the projections of One Reality that transcends subject/object split on the mind.

• Monotheistic religions are focused on a single Deity. They often involve doctrines and also often have a professional priesthood. Examples of monotheisms include: Judaism, Sikhism, Christianity, Islam and the Bahá'í Faith.

• Polytheistic religions involve many deities. Usually, each deity is considered a separate entity (as opposed, for instance, to Christianity which considers the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost as one). Polytheistic religions often flourish in less centralized societies, where each individual can adapt a portion of the religion as their own. This kind of religions gives more freedom to the practitioners who often hold to little dogma. Examples of polytheisms include: the mythologies of ancient Greece and Egypt, and modern Pagan and Neopagan religions such as Wicca or Asatru.

• Shamanistic religions are a broad category of religions based around worship of ancestors or spirits rather than "Gods." Shamanistic religions typically are limited to small geographical areas and rarely achieve national or international organization.

• Pantheistic or natural religions see everything in nature an aspect of a spiritual plane. Such faiths include (to various degrees) Shintoism and several animistic traditions.

• Some faiths, perhaps better termed spiritual philosophies, involve extensive practical teachings for achieving human happiness or equanimity in the natural world with a lesser focus on the supernatural. Examples: Buddhism, Zen, Taoism, and Confucianism.

Generally while individual religions may differ in sources of authority, they share many common traits, such as ritual, concern with the afterlife, regulation of social behavior, and belief in the supernatural.

Dealing with alien religions

Adherents of particular religions deal with the (more or less) divergent doctrines and practices espoused by other religions in several ways. Examples of each exist within most major religious systems. People with exclusivist beliefs typically explain other religions as either in error, or as corruptions or counterfeits of the true faith. People with inclusivist beliefs recognize some truth in all faith systems, highlighting agreements and minimizing differences, but see their own faith as in some way ultimate. People with pluralist beliefs make no distinction between faith systems, viewing each one as valid within a particular culture. Pluralists and inclusivists may borrow from more than one faith system for their own religious practice. However, it should be noted that in many areas different faith systems are integrated into one; this does not fit the definition of pluralism. For example, in many tribal areas of Indonesia natives practice a mixture of Islam, tribal gods, and worship of Adam and Eve.

Role of charismatic figures

Many religions have been deeply influenced by charismatic leaders, such as Jesus Christ, Adi Sankara, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekanada, Sai Baba, Muhammad, Gautama Buddha, etc. These leaders may be the central teacher in the religion, like Muhammad, Jesus or Gautama. Or they might be reformers or prominent persons.

The Founders of some of the major world religions include Abraham and Moses for Judaism, Zoroaster for Zoroastrianism, Gautama Buddha for Buddhism, Jesus Christ for Christianity, Muhammad for Islám, and Bahá'u'lláh for the Bahá'í Faith.

Origin of religion

The origin of religion in general and for particular religions is usually controversial, since religions often claim to have been derived directly from information supplied by god(s) to chosen human messenger(s). Followers of the religion (by definition) accept the claims, either literally or in a metaphorical, or partial fashion. Although followers of a religion, although they may hold strong belief, may also be interested in looking at possible human origins for religious events, together with non-religious enquirers.

Religion developed before writing

Religion was practiced long before the invention of writing, as paintings and pottery shows in images. Religion may well have originated in stories created to account for the great questions of life, for comfort, to keep records of a people's history, and for entertainment. It is possible that atheists (those who do not believe in any deities) or agnostics (those who believe we cannot know if there are any deities) always existed as well, but they would have lacked alternative explanations for natural phenomena.

Genetic propensities toward religion

Recent advances in cognitive psychology and neuropsychology suggest that religion might have its origins in the workings of the brain itself. Pascal Boyer's book, Religion Explained, attempts to explain religion through cognitive psychology.

One does well to remember, however, that the physical sciences have self-described limits -- neuropsychology can tell us "where" religion is perceived in the human brain, and cognitive psychology can tell us "how", but there is no test or experiment to discover "why" or if there really is a supernatural "who".

Physical evidence for origins of religion

Evidence of very early human prehistory is scanty and it is best not to over interpret archaeological remains: for example bones painted with red ochre may signify a color symbolizing life rather than a belief in an afterlife. And covering the dead person's body with valuable possessions may derive from the belief that using the dead person's possessions will bring bad luck. For a more contemporary example, imagine a future archaeologist digging through the remains of a Star Wars fan's bedroom and consider the possible erroneous interpretations of such a find.

Evidence from burial practices

Nevertheless, evidence for early civilizations' religious ideas can be found similarly in elaborate burial practices in which valuable objects were left with the deceased, intended for use in an afterlife or to appease the gods. This custom has clearer motives as it is usually accompanied by tomb paintings showing a belief of afterlife. It reached a spectacular form with the creation of the pyramids of Giza and the other great tombs of ancient Egypt; the Sumerian royal burials, and other prehistoric (pre-written records) monument builders.

Documentation of modern religions' beginnings

Religions created in modern times are often reasonably well documented (for example, Scientology.) Minor religions have been called cults and still are, while many scholars use the term New Religious Movement (NRM). Reasons for the creation of religions are many, including a range from idealism to a desire to obtain wealth and power over others; the two may combine in interesting ways. It's easy to speculate that similar forces were at work in the creation of earlier religions. Once a religious community increases in size and gains widespread recognition, it has to negotiate with the governing social group, the State. At this point material or political ambitions are more likely to be dominant.

Modern benefits from religion

Religions provide great numbers and scale of visionary inspirations for compassion, practical charity and moral restraint.

Abram Maslow's research after World War II showed that Holocaust survivors tended to be those who held strong religious beliefs (not necessarily temple attendance etc). Humanistic Psychology went on to investigate how religious or spiritual identity links with longer lifespan and better health. Humans may particularly need religious ideas because they serve various emotional needs such as the need to feel loved, the need to belong to homogenous groups, the need for understandable explanations or the need for justice.

Maslow's results have not proved repeatable in other contexts. The critical factors may involve sense of purpose, extreme beliefs in general, or other factors sometimes correlated with religious belief, and/or may be specific to Holocaust survivors. The very fact that religion was the primary selector for research subjects may have introduced a bias.

Religion vs. Mythology

Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the Vikings, etc., are often studied under the heading of mythology. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or cultures in development to industrial conditions, are similarly observed by the anthropology of religion. Mythology can be a term used pejoratively by religious and non-religious people both (the religious person will in this case define another religion's stories as mythology). Here myths are treated as fantasies, or "mere" stories. But the study of religions, and the investigation of myths by psychology, not to mention how some myths turn out to have historical verification, has brought about a mixed, almost contradictory use of the term: some NRMs (New Religious Movements) such as Neopaganism actively research and use myths from older religions, both those that still exist and those that have disappeared. Joseph Campbell, in The Power of Myth, held that myth was a universal human trait, and necessary to well-being. There is no essential difference between the myths of extinct religions and those of extant religions.

A few religious critics view the elevation of philosophy of science and "mathematical fetishism" as creating a mythology, and call that an error, scientism. These are usually inseparable from debates about ethics in science.

Monotheism vs. Polytheism

The dominance of monotheism among influential Western scholars of religion, and theologians, proposed a division into monotheistic and polytheistic faiths. The classification fails with a religion that places minute emphasis on gods but more importance on mankind's growing ability to understand the ineffable (like Theravada Buddhism). Christianity claims to be monotheistic, although some writers find this idea problematic since Christian doctrine has developed a notion of God as one essence in three persons (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), explained in the doctrine of the Trinity. The monotheism of Islam and Judaism is much more clear cut, although very early sources for both Allah and Yahweh show signs of henotheistic or polytheistic origins or forerunners, which do not at all deny their sole Deity status once the religion became established. Neopaganism (including Wicca and Asatru), a group of religions generally considered to be polytheistic, is also difficult to classify neatly. While adherents worship a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, a great many of them believe those personalities to be facets of a single Divine entity. The Japanese national religion, Shinto, is often said to be polytheistic, though it would be more accurate to characterise it as a pantheistic religion which tolerates worship of any and all individuated deities.

Some religions have secondary deities, which is straightforward in Hinduism, but less so for those Christians who venerate Mary as Theotokos (Mother of God). Mary has often attracted such a massive devotion by the faithful that the Church has been careful to clearly define her status: Christians in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions are instructed that she is to be venerated but not worshipped, and that Jesus Christ is eternally begotten of the Father, and the Creator of his strictly human mother. (see also: Third Ecumenical Council, Seventh Ecumenical Council.) Many mystics have asserted the female aspect of Deity but apart from Hinduism this has not been regarded as mainstream by major world religions for several centuries. Goddess is routinely recognised in Hindu Mahadevi, Mahayana Buddhism, Western Paganism and Goddess Spirituality.

Christianity, Mahayana Buddhism, and most Hinduisms also recognize the existence of lesser spiritual beings: angels and demons. These may play a more or less elaborate role, but they are not worshipped as gods. In Christian Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, Mary and the saints have especially important roles as intercessors and personal guardians. They are venerated and asked for prayers because their exemplary lives suggest that they are in the presence of God in Heaven. Mahayana Buddhism's lesser deities embody psychological forces, whether as guides, examples or antagonists with whom to learn power and skill. The division between Deity, deity, minor deity, angel, demon, nature spirit, ancestor or hero, is not clear cut, but developed pragmatically.

Emergent religion

Deities both great and lesser are part of practices like transcendental psychology (which looks at the psychology of the spiritual) and therapies like Jungianism. Jung found an underworld of mythological drama in the backstage areas of the mind: in particular, he proposed that our ideas and feelings are shaped by spiritual archetypes, recurring models such as God, the Old Man, or the Mother which have become a part of our collective unconscious through ages of evolution. Gaia philosophy is based on one such image, that of the Earth Mother, called Gaia in Ancient Greece.

The New Age Movement, a late 20th century culture of eclectic beliefs in millennial change, healing traditions, alternative realities, also draws on these mythological images. However, many of these images and rituals are drawn from traditional religions, e.g. Hindu, Sufi, Buddhism or Gnostic.

The Other

But it is important to distinguish a spiritual psychology that explores a map of the self, which goes so deep and far that it recognises divine shapes, from a religion or spirituality that explores a relationship between human self and an Other, the divine.

The distinction asks whether there is dialogue between two or more with genuine voice and influence coming from the other (Martin Buber's I and Thou), or whether there is a journey in which the self encounters profound symbolic experiences. As the opening definition tells us, religion is about linking.

An important view is that one experiences the divine Other only through the specific Other, one's neighbor or enemy (which most religions hold are the same). In some religions, e.g. Islam, this is of primary importance.

The Parliament of World Religions conducts a search for what they call a Global Ethic which would capture the essence of what religions agree on - a consensus. This is one of many ecumenical movements that seek to reconcile religions using consensus decision making and other principles shared by humanism. This is not always easy. Modern Islamic philosophy for instance includes both militant radical Islamist and New-Age-like trends to renew the focus on khalifa, "stewardship", and global social justice.

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See also: List of religious topics - Goddess - God - interfaith organizations - names given to the divine - Religions of the world - Philosophy of religion - Sociology of Religion - Theology - Feminist theology - Thealogy - History of religions - Definition of religion - Charismatics - Religious pluralism - Tolerance - freedom of religion - Afterlife, Angel, Demon, Demonolatry - History of religions - Mystery religion - Religious Festivals - Worship - Veneration - Folk religion - Civil religion - State church - Comparative religion - Pascals Wager - theism - atheism - agnosticism - pantheism- panentheism - henotheism - maltheism - secularism

See also this listing of various religions: religions of the world

External Links

• Statistics on Religions
• A Table of the World's Major Religions
• Sacred Texts
• Apologetics Research Resources
• Library of Christian Classics
• Review of David Sloan Wilson's book Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society
• An article on this topic is also available in Simple English.

See Also

• Irreligion