Immortality

Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an infinite length of time. What form an unending or indefinitely-long human life would take, or whether the soul, should such a thing exist, possesses immortality, has been the subject of much speculation, fantasy, and debate, as well as a fundamental point of focus in many faiths and religions.

Definitions

(See also 'Concepts of immortality', below.)

• Spiritual afterlife - The belief in the immortal soul is a dogma of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. This belief is related to the philosophy of dualism.
• "Immortality" through "fame" - Others believe that they can achieve immortality through the achievements that they leave behind. This view of immortality places value on how one will be remembered by generations to come. His or her good works 'live on' in the world. This view of immortality is embraced in many religious and humanistic philosophies. In Homer's Iliad, Achilles' main motive for fighting in the Trojan War is recognition and everlasting fame.
• Philosophic immortality. This idea holds that metaphysical universals and abstract phenomena exist and can at least be partially interacted with by human beings. If an abstract phenomenon might have at least a partially eternal existence, then a person might obtain at least a transitory level of immortality by interacting with it.
• Genetic immortality. This view of immortality concentrates on leaving offspring, or immortality via evolution, which is curiously similar to Richard Dawkins' theory of the selfish gene ("you never really quite die; as long as there is some of your genetic material left behind in this world").
• Magically immortal - Many European and Chinese alchemists were among such people. The depiction in literature of Gilgamesh was one such as this and an entire cycle, or cycles of Arthurian legend exist in the British Isles, including the Knights of the Round Table going in search for the Holy grail; supposedly, the chalice from which Jesus and his disciples drank at the Last Supper. It may also be taken to mean being invincible or unable to be killed.
• Never dying - Some believe life extension technologies will lead to rejuvenation. Some believe cryonics will allow the dead to be revived in a medically advanced future.
• Atomic immortality - Your mind ceases with death. Your body decomposes. Worms eat your flesh, birds eat the worms, your family eats the birds. Your physical body goes on to be recycled throughout the rest of time. While "you" cease to exist in a living person sense, your body will be recycled until the end of the universe.
• Quantum immortality - In the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, the wavefunction never collapses, and thus all possible outcomes of a quantum event exist simultaneously, with each event apparently spawning an entirely new universe in which a single possible outcome exists. In this physical theory, one could hypothetically live forever as there might exist a string of possible quantum outcomes in which one never dies. This theory of quantum immortality, however, is not widely regarded by the scientific community as being a verifiable or even necessarily correct offshoot of the many worlds interpretation, which itself exists as one possible interpretation of quantum mechanics among many.
• Artificial immortality - This represents the concept of transferring one's consciousness from the brain to an alternative media providing the same functionality as the brain. Such a media may be biological or non-biological. The transference may be gradual (e.g. through cognitive prostheses) or immediate (e.g. through a brain scan).
• Relativistic immortality - Any person travelling to the stars and back at a significant fraction of the speed of light, or residing in an especially strong gravity well, would be able to invoke the twin paradox. An outside observer would notice the affected person ageing at a much slower rate than the observer. Relativistic interstellar travel granting virtual immortality is used as a plot device in Orson Scott Card's series of novels involving Andrew (Ender) Wiggin. Gravitic devices such as the stasis field are used in the Known Space universe created by Larry Niven.

Immortal species

• Turritopsis nutricula jellyfish — After becoming a sexually mature adult, the jellyfish Turritopsis nutricula can transform itself back into a child (the polyp stage) using the cell conversion process of transdifferentiation. The Turritopsis nutricula repeats this cycle, meaning that it may be essentially immortal, though it is mortal in the sense that it can be killed.
• Bacteria (as a colony) — Although they can be killed by antibiotics, radiation, or starvation, bacteria, as a colony, appear to never age. Bacteria reproduce through cell division. A parent bacterium splits itself into two identical daughter cells. These daughter cells then split themselves in half. This process repeats, thus making the bacterium colony essentially immortal. However, a bacterium, as an individual, is mortal since it “dies” when it divides in half.
  Recent research, however, suggests that even bacteria as a colony may eventually die since each succeeding generation is slightly smaller, weaker, and more likely to die than the previous.
• "Bob Barker" - The former host of the price is right is Immortal

Causes of death

There are three main causes of death: aging, disease and trauma.

Aging

Aubrey de Grey, a leading researcher in the field of aging, defines aging as follows: “a collection of cumulative changes to the molecular and cellular structure of an adult organism, which result in essential metabolic processes, but which also, once they progress far enough, increasingly disrupt metabolism, resulting in pathology and death.” The current causes of aging in humans are cell loss (without replacement), oncogenic nuclear mutations and epimutations, cell senescence, mitochondrial mutations, lysosomal aggregates, extracellular aggregates, random extracellular cross-linking, immune system decline, and endocrine changes. Eliminating aging would mean finding a way to deal with each of these causes.

Disease

Disease also is theoretically surmountable via technology. Human understanding of genetics is leading to cures and treatments of a myriad of previously incurable diseases. The mechanisms by which other diseases do their damage are becoming better understood. Sophisticated methods of detecting diseases early are being developed. Preventative medicine is becoming better understood. Neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's may soon be curable with the use of stem cells. Breakthroughs in cell biology and telomere research are leading to treatments for cancer. Vaccines are being researched for AIDS and tuberculosis. Genes associated with type 1 diabetes and certain types of cancer have been discovered allowing for new therapies to be developed. Artificial devices attached directly to the nervous system may restore sight to the blind. Drugs are being developed to treat myriad other diseases and ailments.

Trauma

Most likely the hardest cause of death to overcome is trauma. The problems of aging and disease usually at least provide ample time to solve them, if the technology exists. But even in a postulated world where aging and disease were correctable conditions, getting shot in the head, for example, is not. In situations where time available to provide treatment is extremely short, the success rate of even advanced paramedical technology remains low. Unless technology advances to the point (via perhaps nanotechnology) that a body can automatically treat itself from severe trauma, then the time it takes to deliver a patient to a care facility will likely remain the overriding factor. An additional problem with an injury such as a shot to the head is that with the damage, data is lost, so unless the person's mind has been "saved" before being shot, even if the tissue is repaired the data will remain unrecoverable, a severe problem if it's data needed to control vital organs, such as the lungs or heart. Also, unlike other organs, a brain can't be replaced in the same way other organs can. Preventatively engineering inherent resistance to injury into the body is thus relevant in addition to entirely reactive measures more closely associated with the paradigm of medical treatment (see transhumanism).

Physical immortality

Physical immortality is the unending existence of a person from a physical source such as a brain or computer. This can either be because of a spiritual belief, such as held by members of the Rastafari movement and some who practice Rebirthing-Breathwork or it can be based on technological singularity predictions about the future.

Technological immortality

Technological immortality is the prospect for much longer life spans made possible by scientific advances in a variety of fields: nanotechnology, emergency room procedures, genetics, biological engineering, regenerative medicine, microbiology, and others. Contemporary life spans in the advanced industrial societies are already markedly longer than those of the past because of better nutrition, availability of health care, standard of living and bio-medical scientific advances. Technological immortality predicts further progress for the same reasons over the near term. An important aspect of current scientific thinking about immortality is that some combination of human cloning, cryonics or nanotechnology will play an essential role in extreme life extension. Robert Freitas, a nanorobotics theorist, suggests we may be able to create tiny medical nanorobots that could go through our bloodstream, find dangerous things like cancer cells and bacteria, and destroy them. Freitas anticipates that gene-therapies and nanotechnology will eventually make the human body effectively self-sustainable and capable of living indefinitely, short of severe trauma. Some suggest we will be able to continually create biological or synthetic replacement parts to replace damaged or dying ones.

Cryonics

Some people believe that such treatments will not be available in their natural life span. Cryonics is the practice of preserving organisms (either intact specimens or only their brains) for possible future revival by storing them at cryogenic temperatures where metabolism and decay are almost completely stopped. Ideally this would allow clinically dead people to be brought back in the future after cures to the patients' diseases have been discovered and aging is reversible. Modern cryonics procedures use a process called vitrification which creates a glass like state rather than freezing as the body is brought to low temperatures. This process reduces the risk of ice crystals damaging the brain structure. Many people who wish to become physically immortal think of cryonics as a backup plan in case the emerging life extension technologies don't develop rapidly enough.

Mind-to-computer uploading

One interesting possibility involves uploading the personality and memories via direct mind-computer interface. Some extropian futurists propose that, thanks to exponentially growing computing power, it will someday be possible to upload human consciousness onto a computer system, and live indefinitely in a virtual environment. This could be accomplished via advanced cybernetics, where computer hardware would initially be installed in the brain to help sort memory or accelerate thought processes. Gradually more and more components would be added until the person's entire brain functions were handled by artificial devices, without any sharp transitions that would lead to some identity issues mentioned below. At this point, the human body would become only an accessory and the mind could be transferred to any sufficiently powerful computer. A person in this state would then be essentially immortal, short of cataclysmic destruction of the entire civilization and their computers.

However, some argue that it is impossible to truly move one's consciousness from one body to another; it could be duplicated, but the original would still exist, creating two independent consciousnesses.

Quantum immortality

Main article: Quantum immortality

Quantum immortality is the name for the speculation that the Everett many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics implies that a conscious being cannot cease to be. The idea is highly controversial.

Biological immortality

Main article: Biological immortality

Biological immortality is an absence of aging. A cell or organism that does not experience aging, or ceases to age at some point, is biologically immortal. Hydra can be considered biologically immortal as they do not undergo senescence or aging. Bacteria, as a colony, can also be considered immortal by cell division, because damaged macromolecules can be split between the two cells and diluted. However, biologically immortal organisms can also be killed or damaged by physical destruction.

Cyborgization

Transforming a human into a cyborg can include brain implants or extracting a human mind and placing it in a robotic life-support system. One would thus be impervious to aging and disease and theoretically immortal unless killed or destroyed.

Other

Rastafarians believe in physical immortality as a part of their religious doctrines. They believe that after God has called the Day of Judgment they will go to what they describe as Mount Zion in Africa to live in freedom for ever. They avoid the term everlasting life and deliberately use ever-living instead. Another group that believes in physical immortality are the Rebirthers, who believe that by following the connected breathing process of rebirthing they will live forever physically.

Long before modern science made such speculation feasible, people wishing to escape death sought what we might term mystical immortality, turning to the supernatural world for answers. Examples include Chinese Taoist and the medieval alchemists and their search for the Philosopher's Stone, or more modern religious mystics such as Sri Aurobindo, who believed in the possibility of achieving physical immortality through spiritual transformation.

In Hinduism, one feat that advanced Yogis (practitioners of Yoga) can supposedly perform is "body jumping" — the ability to jump into another host and therefore live a longer life. Many Indian fables and tales include instances of this, and some believers treat the frequent recurrence of this idea as evidence that such an "immortality" method cannot be dismissed outright. There are also entire Hindu sects devoted to the attainment of physical immortality by various methods, namely the Naths and the Aghoras.

Some believe that biological forms have inherent limitations in their design — primarily, their fragility and inability to immediately morph to fit the environment. A way around that predicament may someday present itself in the ability to "exist" outside of the biological form. Over the long term, the biological nature of humanity may only be temporary; should technology permit, people may circumvent death and evolution, simply by taking artificial forms.

Some people believe physical immortality would not be possible or even desirable. Jacques-Yves Cousteau, in the preface to his book The Ocean World, expressed his meditations on physical immortality, as a part of life and its adaptive processes: “Death,” Cousteau states, “is fundamental to evolution,” and “evolution is fundamental to survival.” He concludes that, biologically speaking, “immortality does not present a possible means to avoid death”: “Mortal or immortal, [an organism] must die.”
Michael Shermer believes there is no significant scientific evidence for the proposed methods of achieving physical immortality. He says about them, “All have some basis in science, but none has achieved anything like scientific confirmation.”

Religious traditions

Spiritual immortality, also known as the Immortality of the soul, is the unending existence of a person from a nonphysical source such as a soul.

It is a belief that is expressed in nearly every religious tradition. In both Western and Eastern religions, the spirit is an energy or force that transcends the mortal shell, and returns to: (1) the spirit realm whether to enjoy heavenly bliss or suffer eternal torment in hell, or; (2) the cycle of life, directly or indirectly depending on the tradition. Below we consider the perspective of some of the world's most popular religions on spiritual immortality.

Buddhism

Buddhists believe that there is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth and that the process is according to the qualities of their actions. This constant process of becoming ceases at the fruition of enlightenment (Bodhi) at which a being is no longer subject to causation (karma) but enters into a state that the Buddha called amata (deathlessness). However, in Buddhism there is no belief in an eternal soul (anatta), and some sects also believe in rather a collection of habits and memories in a dynamic process of constant change. At enlightenment the kammic seeds (sankharas or sanskaras) for all future becoming and rebirth are exhausted. After biological death an arhat or buddha enters into what is called parinirvana.

Christianity

Christians believe that every person will be resurrected; the Bible teaches that the resurrected body will, like the present body, be both physical (but a renewed and non-decaying physical body) and spiritual. After the Judgment, those who have been "born again" will live forever in the presence of God, and those who were never born again will be abandoned to never-ending consciousness of guilt, separation from God, and punishment for sin. Eternal death is depicted in the Bible as a realm of constant physical and spiritual anguish in a lake of fire, and a realm of darkness away from God. Some suggest that the fires of Hell are a theological metaphor, standing for the inescapable presence of God endured in absence of love for God; others suggest that Hell represents complete destruction of both the physical body and of spiritual existence (annihilation). The latter view, though in line with the positions of many other religious systems, is usually regarded as heresy by mainstream Christians.

Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholic theology also teaches that there is a realm called Purgatory where souls who have accepted Jesus are purged of their sins before they are admitted into Heaven.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe the word soul (nephesh or psykhe) as used in the Bible is a person, an animal, or the life a person or animal enjoys. Hence, the soul is not part of man, but is the whole man — man as a living being. Hence, when a person or animal dies, the soul dies, and death is a state of non-existence (based on Ezekiel 18:4) Hell (hades or sheol) is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the common grave of humankind, a place of unconsciousness. After the final judgment, it is expected that the righteous will live for ever in an earth turned into a paradise.

Other Christian Beliefs

Some sects who hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration also believe in a third realm called Limbo (Latin: border), which is the final destination of souls who have not been baptised, but who have been innocent of mortal sin. Souls in Limbo include unbaptised infants and those who lived virtuously but were never exposed to Christianity in their lifetimes. Christian Scientists believe that sin brought death, and that death will be overcome with the overcoming of sin.

Hinduism

Hindus believe in an immortal soul which is reincarnated after death. According to Hinduism, people repeat a cycle of life, death, and rebirth (a cycle called samsara). If they live their life well, their Karma increases and their station in the next life will be higher, and conversely lower if they live their life poorly. Eventually after many life times of perfecting one's karma, the soul is freed from the cycle and lives in perpetual bliss. There is no never-ending Hell in Hinduism, although if a soul consistently lives very evil lives, they could work their way down to the very bottom of the cycle.

Judaism

Jews claim that the righteous dead will be resurrected in the "messianic age" with the coming of the messiah. They will then be granted immortality in a perfect world. The wicked dead, on the other hand, will not be resurrected at all. This is in contrast to Christianity where the wicked dead are still immortal and exist forever in Hell. This is not the only Jewish belief about the afterlife. Others do believe in some version of Hell. The Tanakh is not specific about the afterlife, so there are wide differences in views and explanations among believers.

Islam

Muslims believe that everyone has an immortal soul which will live on after death. A soul undergoes correction in Hell if it has led an evil life, but once this correction is over, the soul is admitted to Heaven. Souls that commit unforgivable evil will never leave hell - for example, murder that is not or cannot be forgiven by the family of the victim, maliciously usurping the rights of the oppressed and the orphaned, cannibalism etc. Some souls will therefore never taste Heaven.

Shintoism

Shintoists claim that except for those who choose or are dispatched to the underground world of Yomi, every living and non-living being may lose its body, but not its soul (tamashii), and that they live together with mortal souls as an immortal being called Kami. Unlike the previously mentioned religions, Shinto allows anything to attain Kami status regardless of its existence before becoming Kami. Therefore, even those that do not believe in Shinto may choose to become Kami, as well as things like a rock, a tree, or even a robot. Some may be reincarnated for various reasons. Shinto has no version of Hell or a judgment day.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrians believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body and the body remains as an empty shell. The souls would go to heaven or hell. The concept of Heaven and Hell in Zoroastrism may have influenced Abrahamic religions, but some scholars believe the opposite and that Judiasm in fact may have influenced Zoroastrianism. Neither belief can be proven.

Concepts

Considerations of immortality usually bring to mind the idea of unending existence, a freedom from the concerns of annihilation and death. Often, talk of the immortality of the soul arises in conjunction with talk of immortality. The ideas of science and religion find common goals in the perpetuity of man's existence.

Unending existence

As a thought experiment, suppose that clinical immortality were possible, in which, through advanced life support machinery or similar, the bodily functions of a comatose human could be kept running in perpetuity. Is it good news to keep a vegetative human's heart pumping for aeons? According to the vast majority of ethicists, "Not at all," since unending biological functioning is not the goal of human immortality. Ultimately, what one desires is the permanent preservation of both the body and mind, not just the body.

This raises the philosophical question of the origin of personality. As another thought experiment, suppose that, over a period of time, a person has many operations which gradually replaces all the parts of their brain with computer hardware. For the intentions of this experiment, suppose that doctors already fully understand the brain and are able to successfully move sections of the brain's neural network and memories onto hardware where they can perfectly emulate the "architecture" of the brain. After each procedure, the patient wakes up feeling like the same person. Eventually, the person's entire brain consists of computer parts.

Now suppose that, instead of replacing the person's brain with hardware in many small steps, doctors replace their entire brain with hardware all at once. The person wakes up with the same memories and claims to be the same person, but are they? One speculative view on the above thesis is: The synthetic version of the person would become a different person than who they would have been had their natural brains not been replaced.

The term 'personality' refers to a series of experiences and behaviors throughout an individual's past which molds them into who they are at present. The split second after a replacement operation (partial or complete), the person's personality would change as a result of improved focus, improved logic, increased speed of thought, improved memory retention and other factors. Of course, these would be the goals of having such an operation in the first place.

There is also the question of whether or not this immortality would be able to transcend the Heat death of the universe. While physical implementations of immortality (and those requiring free energy) would not survive, spiritual implementations might be exempt, although many of the major religions that subscribe to spiritual immortality have not considered such an end of the Universe.

Undesirable

Essential to many of the world's religions is a doctrine of an eternal afterlife. But well known narratives from Christianity and Islam show why freedom from annihilation and death could (in principle) not be desirable:

The rich man also died, and was buried; And in hell he lift up his eyes, being in torments, and seeth Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom. And he cried and said, Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus, that he may dip the tip of his finger in water, and cool my tongue; for I am tormented in this flame. But Abraham said, Son, remember that thou in thy lifetime receivedst thy good things, and likewise Lazarus evil things: but now he is comforted, and thou art tormented. And beside all this, between us and you there is a great gulf fixed: so that they which would pass from hence to you cannot; neither can they pass to us, that would come from thence.

— Luke 16:22-26 King James Bible Translation

Those who are wretched shall be in the Fire: There will be for them therein (nothing but) the heaving of sighs and sobs: They will dwell therein for all the time that the heavens and the earth endure, except as thy Lord willeth: for thy Lord is the (sure) accomplisher of what He planneth. And those who are blessed shall be in the Garden: They will dwell therein for all the time that the heavens and the earth endure, except as thy Lord willeth: a gift without break.

— The Qur'an, 11:106-108

Instances from other religions could be added, especially from Buddhism, which considers the eternal rebirth, caused by ignorance, an essentially undesirable condition that is to be overcome, and there is still a rich debate today concerning whether the goal is the attainment of a higher level of consciousness or the ceasing of existence, with several interpretations existing today, with mainstream Buddhism generally leaning towards the attainment of a higher level of consciousness called Nirvana.

Mere perpetual existence is obviously not enough. Ultimately, one desires that this existence be of a desirable quality. As the prevalence of suicide suggests, people may prefer not to exist at all, than exist in a severely unpleasant environment.

In Tolkien's Middle-earth mythos, the immortal Elves were said to view the mortality of Men to be a gift. This was chiefly due to the Elves' clear faculty of memory, which could accumulate millennia of sad experiences.

Immortality of just one person will eventually grow to torture, as everyone you care about will die around you. However author Jorge Luis Borges explores the consequences of a whole society becoming immortal in the short story The Immortal. Having achieved immortality, there is no motivation for any action, for time becomes infinite. For the immortals, time is unimportant. Borges here is highlighting the idea that life gets its meaning from death. Mary Shelley also wrote a short story on this subject, The Mortal Immortal.

When a person is tired of life, even death is shut off to them, creating an endless torture, as evidenced in the Bill Murray movie Groundhog Day.

Desirable

Immortality may appear desirable for many obvious reasons. Here are some less obvious ones :

• Artificial reincarnation:

If the memories of a living being could be partially or totally erased, he would then be able to rediscover what he had willingly forgotten, maybe even since birth. He would then be able to live a new "life".

Scientists are already considering pills that would be designed to forget specific experiences (currently, traumatic ones), and studies of current amnesias are progressively unraveling the mechanisms of forgetfulness.

In the more futuristic context of mind uploading, erasing of selected memories would almost surely be relatively easy.

• Paradise-engineering

In 18th century France, a man who called himself the Comte de Saint-Germain claimed to be centuries old and still maintains a following of people who are convinced of his physical immortality.

Symbols

Ankh

Trefoil knot

There are numerous symbols representing immortality. Pictured here is an Egyptian symbol of life that holds connotations of immortality when depicted in the hands of the gods and pharaohs who were seen as having control over the journey of life, the ankh (left). The Möbius strip in the shape of a trefoil knot is another symbol of immortality. Most symbolic representations of infinity or the life cycle are often used to represent immortality depending on the context they are placed in. Other examples include the Ouroboros, the Chinese fungus of longevity, the ten kanji, the phoenix, and the colors amaranth (in Western culture) and peach (in Chinese culture).

Fiction

Immortal beings and species abound in fiction, especially fantasy fiction, and the meaning of "immortal" tends to vary.

Some fictional and mythological beings are completely immortal (or very nearly so) in that they are immune to death by injury, disease and age. Examples include various types of gods. Sometimes such powerful immortals can only be killed by each other, as is the case with the Q from the Star Trek series. Even if something can't be killed, a common plot device involves putting an immortal being into a slumber or limbo, as is done with Sauron in J.R.R Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and the Dreaming God of Pathways Into Darkness. Storytellers often make it a point to give weaknesses to even the most indestructible of beings. For instance, the Greek hero Achilles was supposed to be invincible, yet his enemies were able to exploit his infamous weakness, Achilles' heel, to slay him.

Many fictitious species are said to be immortal if they cannot die of old age, even though they can be killed through other means, such as injury. Modern fantasy elves often exhibit this form of immortality. Other creatures, such as vampires and the immortals in the film Highlander, can only die from beheading. In Harry Potter, witches or wizards are able to become immortal by creating horcruxes (as long as the Horcruxes are not destroyed) or by drinking the elixir of life, made with the Philosopher's Stone, though the Elixir must be drunk often to maintain the immortality.

Immortality can be used as a prize, something to be earned by great achievement. Legendary heroes, great magicians and wise elders sometimes rise to the ranks of immortality in fiction and mythology. It can be the reward at the end of a great quest, such as the quest for the Holy Grail or the ancient Epic of Gilgamesh. When immortality is something that can be bought, works of fiction will often make judgements regarding the high price that must be paid. Immortality is often the desire of evil characters as well. If immortality is something that can be earned, then it can also be taken away, much to the dismay of many an immortal villain.

Mythical creatures

Myths often involve creatures that are either immortal or associated with immortality. The Gorgons of Greek mythology are famous examples.

Tezuka Osamu's lifework Phoenix (known in Japan as Hi no Tori) had a phoenix whose blood would provide immortality. In various ages, many "heroes" and "heroines" would strive for immortality only to realize that there is something beyond eternal life. In one story titled "Raise hen" (lit. "Next World Story") the last remaining human male who survived a holocaust, blessed (or cursed) with immortality through the phoenix blood, would create another beginning of life. In his immortal form, he would see a race of slugs, after gaining intelligence, destroy themselves in another holocaust. He would seed the earth with life that would become present day humans, and finally leave the earth to join his lover, who died billions of years ago, in heaven.

In the Cthulhu Mythos created by H. P. Lovecraft, there is a race of "Fish-Men" known as Deep Ones. They stop aging after reaching adulthood and can breed with humans to birth offspring with this "eternal youth." Though this is a faustian bargain, as after reaching the age of 20, the Deep One Hybrids undergo a transformation from normal humans into hideous Deep Ones. They also lose all concept of humanity and morality and go to live in the ocean with the Deep Ones and to worship the undersea deity Cthulhu, the Lord of Madness.

Negative effects

Since immortality is seen as a desire of humanity, themes involving immortality often explore the disadvantages as well as the advantages of such a trait. Sometimes immortality is used as a punishment, or a curse that might be intended to teach a lesson. It is not uncommon to find immortal characters yearning for death. A similar, though somewhat different theme, concerned Elves and Men in Middle-earth. While the immortality of Elves was not explicitly a curse, the mortality of humans was viewed as a gift, albeit one that the immortal beings, and often even the humans, didn't understand.

In some parts of popular culture, immortality is not all that it is made out to be, possibly causing insanity and/or significant emotional pain. Much of the time, these things only happen to mortals who gain immortality. Beings born with immortality (such as deities, demigods and races with "limited immortality") are usually quite adjusted to their long lives, though some may feel sorrow at the passing of mortal friends, but they still continue on. Some Immortals (such as certain deities, demigods, and intelligent undead) may also watch over mortal relations (either related to or descended from them), occasionally offering help when needed.

In his short story 'The Immortal', Jorge Luis Borges treats the theme of immortality from an interesting perspective: after centuries and centuries, everything is repetition for the immortal and a feeling of ennui prevails. The immortal, who had turned so after drinking from a certain river, is set to wander the world in search for that same river, so that he can become mortal again.

The Dungeon Master in Zork Grand Inquisitor, a spirit in a lantern during the game, accidentally casts an immortality spell on himself while he still has his body. He soon grows terribly bored, and tries many ways of suicide, with little or comical effects, for example: "Dear Diary, today I tried to kill myself by shoving a sword through my heart. All I got was heartburn."

Another rather comedic incident involving an accidental cause of imortality can be found in Douglas Adams' Hitchhikers guide to the galaxy, where the alien Wowbagger accidentally turned himself immortal. Due to not being a natural immortal, people who he considers to be "a bunch of serene bastards", he doesn't know how to handle his immortality and winds up deciding that he will insult every living being in the universe - in alphabetical order just to kill some time, something he has an awfully lot of.

In the manga Blade of the Immortal, Manji is a samurai who has been cursed with immortality. Only after slaying 1000 evil men will the curse be broken so he can finally die. His body cannot age nor can he die from physical wounds. Manji's sword skills are sloppy due to the fact that since he's immortal he doesn't need to know how to fight properly.

In legend, most famously in Wagner's opera The Flying Dutchman, a ship's captain is cursed with immortality after attempting to sail around the Cape of Good Hope in a terrible storm. He is doomed to sail around the Cape forever.

In Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, some of the inhabitants of the island of Immortals (near Japan) don't die, but they age and became ill, demented and a nuisance to themselves and those surrounding them. Swift presents immortality as a curse rather than a blessing. The film Zardoz also depicts a dystopian view of immortality, where interest in life has been lost and suicide is impossible.

The Star Trek: Voyager episode "Death Wish" explored in depth the existence of the omnipotent, immortal and omniscient aliens Q. It is learned in that episode that the aliens were originally human-like, and somehow evolved into their current state long ago. With their new-found powers, the Q set out to fully explore, experience and understand the universe. Afterwards, the Q had nothing left to do or say, and now they simply sit out eternity in their realm. As one Q explained, you can only experience the universe so many times before it gets boring.

In the children's novel, Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt, a family is made physically immortal by drinking water from a magical spring. They are trapped at the same age forever and are invulnerable. They are hated by the ordinary people who knew them and are forced to watch as everything they cherish grows old and dies.

In the film and television series Highlander, once one dies for the first time, if they are an Immortal, they will spend the rest of eternity at that physical age. This poses a problem when one dies as a small child, or as a very old man. The same is true of Kirsten Dunst's character in the film Interview with the Vampire and the Blade television series.

In the Legacy of Kain series, vampirism was a curse placed upon an ancient race that won the war against the Hylden that granted bloodlust, sterility and immortality, the former causing their God to abandon them.

In the movie Death Becomes Her, the characters of Madeline Ashton and Helen Sharp both become immortal and young after drinking a potion, but this form of immortality has significant drawbacks; unlike most forms of immortality, which include rapid healing, Madeline and Helen simply don't stop walking and talking after their bodies die. As a result, they continue to decay despite the fact that they are still conscious, forcing them to stay together for all eternity in order to ensure that their bodies remain in at least partially decent condition.

In general, a theme seen with many variations, is the notion of an essential world weariness akin to extreme exhaustion for which death is the only relief. This is inescapable when immortality is defined as (half) infinite life. Immortality defined as finite but arbiitrarily long per the existants desire does not, as a definition, suffer this limitation.

Undeath

The undead are the fictional people who have died and still maintain some aspects of life. In many examples, the undead are immune to aging or even heal at an accelerated rate. Dracula is one of the most famous examples of the undead.

The roleplaying game Vampire: The Requiem, published by White Wolf Publishing, Inc., has undeath be the form of immortality held by vampires wherein their bodies are absent of all life functions such as breathing and heartbeat. They have theoretically infinite lifespans (and can even survive unprotected in the vacuum of space and under the crushing depths of the ocean), but they can be killed with enough damage. Though they are also forced to watch as everything they knew in life withers away and they are unable to adapt to the changing eras of history. Because they are fallible predators, their humanity also begins to deteriorate, and a few become mindless/insane monsters called Draugr (also known as Revenants) as a result of losing all concept of being human. Such ravening monsters are always hunted down by other vampires, to prevent humans from learning of the existence of vampires.

In the films Re-Animator, and subsequently Bride of Re-Animator and Beyond Re-Animator, Dr Herbert West creates a serum that has the ability to re-animate dead tissue and stop its decay. In Re-Animator, re-animated corpses are shown to show some emotion and intelligence if they're fresh enough. However, the antagonist in the story lobotomizes re-animated decaying corpses to make them his slaves.

Freddy Krueger of the A Nightmare on Elm Street movies is considered to be immortal, as well. Though he was killed as a human, he exists as a "dream demon", who needs only to be feared to be able to enter people's dreams and cause them harm. Even without this fear, he can exist, either in "limbo" or in Hell. Because of this immortality, he can never be permanently killed. He can only be contained by being forgotten about, and thus prevented from ever entering dreams again.

Science fiction

Immortality can be achieved in fiction though scientifically plausible means. Extraterrestrial life might be immortal or it might be able to give immortality to humans. Immortality is also achieved in many examples by replacing the mortal human body by machines.

In the Doctor Who mythology, the Cybermen are basically human brains placed into mechanical bodies, with every emotion drained out. This process was supposed to allow the Human race to reach its pinnacle. The unforeseen downturn is that with immortality reached, there is no motivator for the Human Race to actually strive for anything more. In another Doctor Who storyline, The Caves of Androzani, a fictitious substance named spectrox, found exclusively on the titular planet, is revealed to be able to prolong human life to more than double its natural length, and as such is the most valuable substance in the galaxy - ironically, the lives of all those involved with it in the story are grim and difficult, due to corporate monopolizing of its distribution, and the resultant infighting over its control, extortionate costs and the theft and smuggling of the substance from its mines.

Another case of immortality in Doctor Who is in the character Jack Harkness, a companion to the Tenth Doctor. Jack was killed by Daleks, but was then resurrected by Rose, who had absorbed the power of the Time Vortex. Since then, while he is able to die, each death is only temporary, with him usually recovering soon after his death.

Megaman Zero's Doctor Weil had his memories transferred into program data and his body remodeled into that of a cyborg's as punishment for sparking the Elf Wars, using the Dark Elf to attack Reploids and humanity alike. He was then banished from nature and humanity, which eventually drove him insane.

In the TV series Stargate SG-1, the primary antagonists for the first eight years, the Goa'uld achieve a measure of immortality. The Goa'uld symbiote can naturally extend the life-span of its human hosts upward of 200 years. By coupling its own natural healing abilities with advanced technology, a Goa'uld can keep itself and its host alive almost indefinitely. However, during the later seasons of the show it is noted that the Goa'uld, even when using life-prolonging technology, change hosts after a number of millennia. Additionally, Lord Yu, one of the oldest Goa'uld, started experiencing similar symptoms to old age (such as memory loss) as his host had become too old to be regenerated by the technology, and the symbionte itself was now physically unable to take a new host due to old age. The Goa'uld do experience a different measure of immortality as they possess genetic memory, so any direct descendants will have all the memories of their predecessor. This is passed on down the generations of the Goa'uld, so one could say a part of the Goa'uld lives on forever. In the spinoff to SG-1, Stargate Atlantis, the main villains, the Wraith, can't die of natural causes, and are difficult to kill by force. In the episode "The Defiant One", a Wraith remained alive for over 10,000 years by cannibalizing other Wraith when its original food source (captured humans) was depleted. Both series feature "ascended beings," such as the Ancients, who have learned to shed their physical body and exist as energy, making them immortal.

Perry Rhodan is the world's most prolific literary science fiction (SF) series, published since 1961 in Germany. In the storyline Perry Rhodan is the commander of the first mission to the moon, where they come upon a stranded vessel of an alien race in search of eternal youth. Perry Rhodan uses the superior technology to unite the earth and then continues the search for eternal youth. Ultimately he follows the hints laid out by a higher being called ES ("it" in German) that exists in an incorporeal state. This being chooses Perry Rhodan and a select few of his companions to attain Agelessness (ES says "I grant you everlasting life, not rejuvenation") in order for them to pursue goals set by ES.

In the Hyperion Cantos Universe, a parasite originating from the planet Hyperion called the cruciform brings immortality, being able to regenerate the body after death. Wealthy humans can also achieve significant increase of their life expectancy thanks to the expensive Poulsen treatments.

In the novel Ender's Shadow a genetic modification known as Anton's Key is discovered, allowing the human mind to achieve supreme intelligence at the cost of an extremely short life, and it is said that the reverse can be done, making a person immortal at the cost of nearly all intelligence.

In Tad Williams' Otherland novels, the Grail Brotherhood, a group made up of the most affluent people in the world, attempt to achieve eternal life in virtual reality. They try to copy their neural pathways into virtual replicas with all of their memories, then kill their physical forms. The process fails due to complications involving the system's artificial intelligence.

In the LucasArts adventure game The Dig, the remains of an alien civilisation advanced enough to gain first physical and then spiritual immortality are explored and analysed. It eventually turns out that the obsession with living forever ultimately brought about their downfall; they lived forever, but lost "everything that made life worth living".

In the game Warhammer 40,000 set thousands of years in the future and across the galaxy, the Necron race are virtually immortal, their souls placed in machines that can be revived from any damage. And the C'tan, beings of pure energy living in artificial bodies, are immortal and can only be fully destroyed by another C'tan or by a Warp-based attack, such as a Talisman of Vaul.

In the Richard K. Morgan novel Altered Carbon their consciousness rotated into a new clone when they die. Certain wealthy called "Meths" (short for Methuselah) can afford to have there consciousness rotated through a series of perpetual rejuvenated clones, thus avoiding old age. It is wryly noted however, that most people don't have the stomach to experience old age and death more than twice, and opt to be "put on stack" (stored) except for special family occasions.

Regeneration

There are many examples of immortality in fiction where a character is vulnerable to death and injury in the normal way but possesses an extraordinary capacity for recovery.

The Doctor Who series focuses on a character called The Doctor who is famous for regenerating instead of dying or aging. The Tenth Doctor expressed regret that he would eventually lose all his companions, while he himself would live on: "the curse of the Time Lords".

In the Doctor Who story The Five Doctors, Lord President Borusa of Gallifrey uses the first five regenerations of the Doctor and various companions in a plot to gain the immortality of Rassilon, the founder of Time Lord society, for himself. But it turns out to be a trap conceived of by Rassilon to deal with individuals with such a desire. As the First Doctor says in the end, "Immortality is a curse, not a blessing".

In the eponymous 1960s television series, Captain Scarlet was supposedly indestructible. In that series a Martian race has the ability to duplicate things which have been destroyed as they were when they were whole, including producing a living version of a dead person. Captain Scarlet is an agent of that race that has defected to fight against them but retains the ability to create a living version of himself after dying. The series uses the term retro-metabolism for this alien regeneration technique.

Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th movies is considered to be immortal. It is theorized that each time he is "killed" he is actually just put into a type of sleep while he regenerates enough of his lost and damaged tissue to function normally again. Jason has been killed, but there have been means outside his physical influence that led to his resurrection. When he was first killed, he survived permanent death via his father's wish that he would not be cremated before his own murderer incidentally brought him back, leading to a more unstoppable Jason. Jason even survives being blown up, by possessing other people and eventually being reborn through a dead relative. He also survives being blown apart in Jason X and is reconstructed as a cyborg through nanotechnology.

In the popular Japanese novel, Kōga Ninpōchō, the character Yakushiji Tenzen is considered immortal due to his ability to regenerate all damage done to him. How this regeneration is possible is differently explained in all of the different versions of the story.

In the TV series Heroes, Claire Bennett has the power of spontaneous regeneration. Her body tissue will simply regenerate when damaged. The one exception is that injuries to the brain will not regenerate immediately, but will instead induce an apparent-dead state. This is reversed after foreign objects are removed from the brain or spine. Adam Monroe, a character with similar powers, is also over 400 years old as a result of his ability.

In the television series Battlestar Galactica humanoid and raider cylon models download into new bodies if their current incarnation is destroyed. Their memories and consciousness are fully transferred to the appropriate model - be it one of 12 humanoid versions or into a new raider.

Spiritual

There are numerous works of fantasy fiction dealing with spiritual immortality in the form of reincarnation or a world of the dead. The novel What Dreams May Come by Richard Matheson and the Tim Burton film Beetlejuice have heroes who are forced to explore such worlds after their untimely deaths.

In the book Thursday's fictions by Richard James Allen, the character Thursday tries to cheat the cycle of reincarnation to achieve a form of serial immortality - by rediscovering who she is each time she comes back to life in a different body. Her actions create havoc for herself and all the characters in the story and when her son is offered eternal life at the end of the tale he turns it down in favor of living in the moment.

In the roleplaying game Wraith: The Oblivion, published by White Wolf Publishing, Inc., the afterlife is place known as the Underworld, where certain people who die enter as ghosts, emotionally bound to their former lives. Many are unhappy with their eternal existences and either become insane Spectres or ossify into statues. Originally, the Underworld was a place where the dead stayed until they reached transcendence, but the notion was later considered heretical by the Hierarchy.

In the game Soul Calibur III the final boss of the game Zasalamel (ultimate form “Abyss”) was a member of an ancient Egyptian tribe that guarded the mythical Soul Calibur. Being a genius among his tribe he mastered the forbidden art of reincarnation, so every time he would die he would be reincarnated. But every time he died began a fury of unimaginable and incomprehensible pain of his body and his soul until he was completely born again. After thousands upon thousands of years of being subjected to this pain he simply wanted to die. In a way he was actually forced to hate death through Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning. Knowing that there he had gained so much power that he becomes even more powerful than the sword known as Soul Calibur and its evil counterpart Soul Edge, he formed a master plan that would lead to his death. Thus he gave the evil sword, Soul Edge, a body so that it could feast upon human souls until it was powerful enough to merge with Soul Calibur to break his curse.

One of the central concepts of the science fiction miniatures game Warhammer 40,000 is a place called the Warp. It is more officially called the Immaterium because it is a purely spiritual place that is dominated by thought and lacking the material nature of the real world. In the game it allows travel faster than light, but it is also a place where a mind can continue to exist after death. Alien races and gifted humans are even described as being able to return to life after death by manipulating the warp, especially the humans called Psykers and an alien the race called the Eldar.

Comic books

The Eternals of Marvel comics fame are a race of ancient people created by the Celestials, along with the Humans and Deviants. The eternals were created by the Celestials to live forever in order to protect earth. Other Marvel characters that are virtually immortal include Apocalypse, Galactus, Uatu and the rest of his Watcher race, Mr. Immortal, and the Elders of the Universe.

DC Comics also has its fare share of immortals, such as the more advanced New Gods (e.g. Darkseid, Highfather), Superman (in some incarnations), Wonder Woman and the rest of the Amazonians, and the Guardians of the Universe also Ra's al Ghul uses the Lazarus Pit to keep himself immortal.

Anime and manga

In the anime/manga Naruto, four characters have shown the ability to find some way to increase longevity or become immortal, Sasori, Hidan, Kakuzu and Orochimaru. Kakuzu is partially immortal because of his unique ability to add new organs (specifically hearts) to his body in order to increase his already long life. Orochimaru invented a jutsu which allows him to switch bodies with another person, allowing him to become partially immortal. Sasori turned his own body into a puppet and sealed his humanity in a small flesh and blood core, free from the human essentials forever. In contrast to Sasori, Orochimaru and Kakuzu, who had to find a special technique in order to increase their longevity, Hidan does not have the ability to die. Even the most grievous wounds could not kill him, and even decapitating him is more a nuisance than anything else.

Immortal Rain is a manga by Kaori Ozaki. The main character, Methuselah, was cursed by his friend with immortality. He is a kind, gentle man who loves people, and 600 years of painful memories can be too much. He can't stand watching the people around him die and attempts to separate himself from human connections. But when a young bounty hunter follows him, she saves him from his loneliness, and he saves her from hers. Though it's not really mentioned, the tragedy is that the young girl, Machika, will become an old woman and die in the blink of an eye (or she'll be killed young); he will be alone again, with the memory of her death haunting him forever. That is, unless he can become a human mortal again. Though the world is jealous of Methuselah's immortality, he suffers from it and wants nothing more than to die.

In the anime Bleach, several of the series' races are very long-lived in some fashion, though not explicitly immortal. A race of humans called bounts are effectively immortal so long as they can find human souls to devour. They are born like any ordinary human, but when they are around 20-30 years old, they stop aging. Hollows are likewise very long-lived, and subsist of the same methods as the bount. Deceased human spirits, be they shinigami or simply ordinary souls, age at an extremely slowed rate, such that those well over 2000 years old will appear at most to be in their eighties.

Naraku, the main antagonist of Inuyasha, became partially immortal when he rejected his human heart. He could not be killed unless his heart, which took the form of an infant called Akago, was destroyed. A good example of this is when Sesshomaru shreds Naraku to pieces (and yet he still survives) when they are fighting in the Netherworld, after Inuyasha destroys Naraku's barrier with Kongosoha (Diamond Shard Blast).

In Fullmetal Alchemist, immortality is partially achieved through the use of a Philosopher's Stone. By using energy stored in the stone (harvested from the lives of thousands of slain innocents), human souls can essentially leap from body to body (or, in some cases, inanimate objects), thus living on. However, doing so slowly destroys the soul until it can no longer support a new flesh-and-blood body, which quickly begins to rot as soon as it is taken over.

Other versions

The Immortals of Highlander: The Series possess immortality granted by an unknown energy (called the Quickening), which is triggered by the trauma of a violent death. Once immortal, they can still be injured, but heal very quickly. Although there are discrepancies between the film and the series, the generally accepted canon is that they can die but will be healed and resurrected unless they are beheaded. If beheaded, usually by another Immortal during combat, the victor receives the loser's 'Quickening' or knowledge and power. Immortals can sense other Immortals by the 'buzz' they receive when near another Quickening. No Immortal will desecrate holy ground by battling on it. All Immortals are sterile. Their origins are mysterious, although it is indicated many of them are foundlings. The legend they follow says that when only a few remain standing, they will fight at "The Gathering" for something known only as "The Prize", which is the knowledge and power of every Immortal. It is unknown what power this will have on the very last Immortal, but the ending of the first movie suggests that The Prize is both an empathic link with all humanity and a restoration of the Immortal's mortality and fertility - the Immortal will be able to grow old, die of natural causes, and bear or conceive a child.

In Tom Robbins' book Jitterbug Perfume, the characters of Alobar and Kudra explore the realms of immortality through their will to attain eternal life.

In Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II, Darth Sion has a unique force power called pain, which keeps him alive forever but never allows any of his wounds to heal. The Exile convinced him to turn away from the force which finally allowed him to die.

In Douglas Adams' novel Life, the Universe and Everything the character Wowbagger the Infinitely Prolonged had the misfortune of being immortal due to "a strange accident involving an irrational particle accelerator, a liquid lunch and a pair of rubber bands". After becoming immortal, he did everything one can do in life, several times, becoming terribly bored of everything. He then made a plan that, despite being rather foolish, would at least keep him busy: he was going to insult, personally, all the living beings in the universe, in alphabetical order.

Naraku, the main antaganist of Inuyasha, became partially immortal when he rejected his human heart. He could not be killed unless his heart, which took the form of an infant called Akago, was destroyed. A good example of this is when Sesshomaru shreds Naraku to pieces (and yet he still survives) when they are fighting in the Netherworld, after Inuyasha destroys Naraku's barrier with Kongosoha (Diamond Shard Blast).

The Phantom is a comic character who appears to be immortal, fighting pirates and evil across centuries. However it is just a dynasty of heroes who pass the mask and suit of the Phantom along generations. Their secret is known just to their aides and wives.

In Andromeda, the character Trance Gemini is the avatar of the original Vedran sun, and as such, has special powers. She and her "sisters" can live as long as stars do: for billions of years. It's unknown whether Trance has physical immortality, or if she was even ever alive. It is alluded to that she is dead and alive at the same time.

The character Oro in the Street Fighter metaverse is explicitly said to be immortal. M. Bison constantly claims to be immortal, but that is contradicted by Capcom's statement that he is dead and in Hell. There are also strong hints that Akuma and Twelve are immortal.

The nameless protagonist of the video game Planescape: Torment has a kind of limited immortality: he will die if injured enough, but he will always wake up again shortly afterward, albeit with some or all of his memories missing. This has led to a situation where, over thousands of years, different versions of the protagonist have existed, some good, some evil, and some absolutely insane. The goal of the game is to regain one's mortality and finally die permanently--a rather unconventional ending for a video game.

Several characters from the Sonic the Hedgehog series are immortal including Shadow the Hedgehog, Chaos and Black Doom. The most frequently recurring character, Shadow, is an artificial life form created aboard the Space Colony ARK that is explicitly declared 'immortal'. He was forced to witness the murder of Maria Robotnik, his best (and possibly only) friend, which creates a chasm between the other characters and himself and so has played antagonistic roles at times. However, neither Black Doom or Shadow are invincible. It is implied that Shadow destroyed Black Doom in Shadow the Hedgehog, and Shadow himself was almost killed in Sonic Adventure 2; it is implied that he would have died if he wasn't rescued by Dr Eggman.

Poul Anderson's The Boat of a Million Years concerns several otherwise ordinary people who stop aging at maturity. The book follows their struggles through the millennia, through the late 20th century and beyond.

In the series of novels written by David Eddings, "The Belgariad" and "The Mallorean", the eight gods and their disciples, notably Belgarath and Polgara, are immortal.

See also

• Actuarial escape velocity
• Afterlife
• Aging
• Amaranth
• Ambrosia
• Amrita
• Aubrey de Grey
• Alex Chiu
• Biogerontology
• Bioethics
• Biological immortality
• Chiranjeevin
• Consciousness
• Crown of Immortality
• Cryonics
• Cyborg
• Death
• Degrees of glory
• Immortalist Society
• Immortality Institute
• Infinity
• Life
• Lich
• Holy grail

• Henrietta Lacks
• Horcrux
• Hydrozoa
• Indefinite lifespan
• Life extension
• List of immortal people
• Longevity
• Molecular nanotechnology
• Persian Immortals
• Philosopher's stone
• Posthuman
• Quantum immortality
• Real death
• Reincarnation
• Rejuvenation
• Religion
• Resurrection
• Senescence
• Suspended animation
• Nikola Tesla
• Simulated reality
• Technological singularity
• Transhumanism
• Xian (Chinese immortal)

References

• Alexander, Brian. 2003. Rapture: How Biotech Became the New Religion. Basic Books. ISBN 0-7382-0761-6
• Ben Bova. 2000. Immortality: How Science Is Extending Your Life Span-and Changing the World. New York: Avon. ISBN 0-380-79318-0
• Oscar Cullmann, Immortality of the Soul or Resurrection of the Dead? 1955. (available online)
• Paul Edwards. 1997. Immortality. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-130-0
• Elixxir. 2001. The Immortalist Manifesto: Stay Young & Save the World. Authorhouse Books. ISBN 0-7596-5339-9
• Robert A. Freitas Jr.. 2002. "Death is an Outrage"
• Hall, Stephen S. 2003. Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-09524-1
• Immortality Institute. 2004. The Scientific Conquest Of Death. Libros En Red. ISBN 987-561-135-2
• R. Michael Perry. 2000. Forever For All: Moral philosophy, Cryonics, and the Scientific Prospects for Immortality. New York: Universal Publishers. ISBN 1-58112-724-3
• West, Michael D. 2003. The Immortal Cell: One Scientist's Quest to Solve the Mystery of Human Aging. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50928-6
• Cliff Pickover. 2007. A Beginner's Guide to Immortality: Extraordinary People, Alien Brains, and Quantum Resurrection. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-984-1
• Richard James Allen. 1999. Thursday's Fictions. Wollongong: Five Islands Press. ISBN 0-86418-596-0

External links

• Why We Age - A scientific resource for aging and anti-aging research
• Immortality / Eternal Life - An Evangelical Christian perspective
• Immortality: A Taoist perspective
• Mary Shelley's The Mortal Immortal
• Who Wants to Live Forever? - Overview of the Three Basic Types of Immortality
• Discussion of immortality
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: - Death and Immortality; Resurrection; Reincarnation
• "How you Can Have Eternal Life" by Jack Graham
• KurzweilAI.net
• Immortality Online All the latest news on Immortality and Human Life Extension
• Immortality Institute - Advocacy and Research on Indefinite Lifespan - Scientific and sociological discussions, activism, research
• Jhershierra Immortality Message Board - Discussion board of spiritualist Jhershierra
• "Inventor Kurzweil Aiming to Live Forever"; RedNova
• The Quest For Immortality - Informative article on the current status of immortality-related science.
• Pimm - Partial immortalization
• Achieving Immortality via the Scientific Method
• Immortality International - Life is a basic human right
• The Immortality of the Soul and the Resurrection of the Body by Heinrich J. Vogel
• Eternity by J. P. Meyer
• Thursday's Fictions by Richard James Allen