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{{coord|45|33|54|N|107|25|44|W|display=title|name=Battle of the Little Bighorn|region=US|type=landmark}}
{{coord|45|33|54|N|107|25|44|W|display=title|name=Battle of the Little Bighorn|region=US|type=landmark}}
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{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of the Little Bighorn
|partof=the [[Black Hills War]]
|image=[[Image:Custer Massacre At Big Horn, Montana June 25 1876.jpg|300px]]
|caption=''Custer Massacre at Big Horn, Montana &mdash;<br>[[June 25]], [[1876]]'', artist unknown
|date=[[June 25]] &ndash; [[June 26]], [[1876]]
|place=Near the [[Little Bighorn River]], [[Big Horn County, Montana]]
|result=Native American victory
|combatant1=[[Lakota people|Lakota]],<br>[[Northern Cheyenne]],<br>[[Arapaho]]
|combatant2=[[United States]][[7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)]]
|commander1=[[Sitting Bull]],<br>[[Crazy Horse]]
|commander2=[[George Armstrong Custer|George A. Custer]]&nbsp;†,<br>[[Marcus Reno]],<br>[[Frederick Benteen]],<br>[[James Calhoun (soldier)|James Calhoun]]&nbsp;†
|strength1=Believed to be 949 lodges (probably 900 - 1,800 warriors)
|strength2=31 officers,<br>566 troopers,<br>15 armed civilians,<br>~35-40 scouts
|casualties1=Believed to be at least 36 killed, ~168 wounded<br>(according to Sitting Bull); or 136 killed, 160 wounded (according to Red Horse)
|casualties2=~268 killed (16 officers, 242 troopers, 10 civilians/scouts),<br>~55 wounded
}}
{{fixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox 1876 North Plains Campaign}}
{{fixHTML|end}}


[[Image:US Cav 35.svg|thumb|left|US Seventh Cavalry Battle Guidon‎]]

After the 1875 [[Sun Dance]] alliance made by [[Sitting Bull]] between the Lakota and Cheyenne, thousands of Indians had slipped away from their [[Indian reservation|reservations]] through early 1876. Military officials planned a summer campaign to corral them and force them back to the reservations, using both [[infantry]] and cavalry in three expeditions:

* [[Colonel|Col.]] [[John Gibbon]]'s column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the [[7th Infantry Regiment (United States)|7th Infantry]] and four (F, G, H, and L) of the [[2nd ACR|2nd Cavalry]] marched east from [[Fort Ellis]] in western Montana on March 30, patrolling the Yellowstone River.

* [[Brigadier General|Brig. Gen.]] [[George Crook]]'s column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the [[3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States)|3rd Cavalry]], five (A, B, D, E, and I) of the [[2nd U.S. Cavalry|2nd Cavalry]], two companies (D and F) of the [[4th Infantry Regiment (United States)|4th Infantry]], and three (C, G, and H) of the [[9th Infantry Regiment (United States)|9th Infantry]], moved north from [[Fort Fetterman]] in the [[Wyoming Territory]] on May 29, marching toward the [[Powder River (Montana)|Powder River]] area.

* Brig. Gen. [[Alfred Terry]]'s command (the entire 7th Cavalry; Companies C and G, 17th U.S. Infantry; and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry) departed westward from [[Fort Abraham Lincoln]] in the [[Dakota Territory]] on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a la dethe village without further rn was that the Indians would break up and scatter in different directions. The command began its approach to the Indian village at 12 noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Gray|authorlink= John Gray| title="Custer's Last Campaign"| publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year = 1991|pages=243. ISBN 0-8032-7040-2}}</ref>

===7th Cavalry organization and deployment===

The 7th Cavalry was a veteran organization created just after the [[American Civil War]]. Several men were veterans of the war, including many of the leading officers. A significant portion me it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from [[cholera]] epidemics.

Half of the 7th Cavalry had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the [[deep South]], having been recalled to [[Fort Abraham Lincoln]] to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 percent of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718)r experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from [[Ireland]], [[England]] and [[Prussia]], just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence also suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition. However, this was often the case in the army at this time.<ref>Barnard, pp. 121-136.</ref>

Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in L Company), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. [[Samuel D. Sturgis]]) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. Among thosehe 7th since their appointment in July 1866.<ref> Capt. Sheridan (Company L), the brother of Lt. Gen. [[Philip H. Sheridan]], served only 7 months in 1866-67 before becoming permanent aide to his brother but remained on the rolls until 1882. Capt. Ilsley (Company E) was aide to Maj. Gen [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] from 1866 to 1879, when he finally joined his command. Capt. Tourtelotte (Company G) never joined the 7th. A fourth captain, Owen Hale (Company K), was the regiment's recruiting officer in St. Louis and rejoined his company immediately.</ref> Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.

Following a forced night march on [[June 24]]&ndash;[[June 25]] and the discovery of the Indian village the morning of June 25, Custer rode down into the valley of the Little Big Horn in preparation to attack. At roughly 12:15 p.m.,<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Gray|authorlink= John Gray| title="Custer's Last Campaign"| publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year = 1991|pages=244-245. ISBN 0-8032-7040-2}}</ref> he divided the 7th Cavalry into four groups:

*The largest battalion consisted of Companies C, E, F, I, and L, personally led by Custer. It numbered 13 officers, 198 men (seven of whom would eventually be detached before the "last stand") and three civilians&mdash;newspaper reporter [[Mark Kellogg (reporter)|Mark Kellogg]] and two scouts. Two of Custer's relatives later joined the column. Troop C was commanded by Custer's brother, [[Captain|Capt.]] [[Thomas Custer]] and L Company by his brother-in-law, [[First Lieutenant|1st Lt.]] [[James Calhoun (soldier)|James Calhoun]]. This battalion marched along a ridge line on the east bank of the Little Bighorn in an attempt to enter the encampment from the north. Four of the battalion's officers (1st Lt. Algernon E. Smith, 2nd Lts. James G. Sturgis, John J. Crittenden, and William V. W. Reily) were on temporary duty that resulted in their deaths, and 2nd Lt. Charles C. DeRudio was detached from E Company and survived as a result (see [[Battle of the Little Bighorn#7th Cavalry officers at the Little Bighorn|7th Cavalry officers at the Little Bighorn]]).

*A second battalion, led by [[Major|Maj.]] [[Marcus Reno]], was sent into the Little Bighorn valley to provoke an engagement. This battalion consisted of Companies A, G and M, and numbered 11 officers, 131 troopers and most of the approximately 35 Sioux, [[Ree]]/[[Arikara]] and [[Crow Tribe|Crow]] scouts.

*A third battalion was led by a company commander, Capt. [[Frederick Benteen]], and was made up of Companies D, H and K, with five officers and 110 men. Custer ordered Benteen to scout nearby valleys and attack any body of Indians he encountered. While he did so, Benteen would be out of supporting distance from the rest of the command.<ref>For an alternative theory concerning Custer's intentions in deploying Benteen to the left based on detailed examination of the terrain using Google Earth see this web article[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/adam.fox57/MikeFox/LBH/LBH Google Earth analysis] which also refutes accusations of Benteen travelling slowly.</ref> Benteen himself described his mission to his wife in a letter days after the action, "General Custer divided the 7th Cavalry into three Battalions — about 15 miles from an Indian village, the whereabout of which he did not know exactly. I was ordered with three Co's., D, H, & K, to go to the left for the purpose of hunting for the valley of the river—Indian camp—or anything I could find. I found nothing, and after marching 10 miles or so in pursuit of the same determined to return to Custer's trail."<ref>Benteen letter to his wife, 2 July 1876, Graham, Col. W. A, "The Custer Myth" New York, Bonanza Books, 1953, pg 187,</ref>

*The last group was the regimental pack train, consisting of seven or eight troopers from each company and escorted by Company B. Commanded by Capt. [[Thomas McDougall]], this sizable force had two officers, 127 troopers and seven civilian packers.

Each of the first three detachments was to seek out the Indian encampments, attack them, and hold them in place until the other two detachments arrived to support. Custer had employed similar tactics in 1868 during the [[Battle of the Washita]].

==Indian Village==
The unusually large village gathered along the banks of the Little Bighorn included [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne]] and a small number of [[Arapaho]]. The size of the village is unknown, though is estimated to have been 949 lodges, with between 900 to 1,800 warriors.<ref>Elliot, pp. 23-36. ([http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/201467.html '''excerpt''']).</ref>

==Battle==
[[Image:Custer.gif|400px|left|thumb|Movement of the 7th Cavalry<br />A: Custer B: Reno C: Benteen D: Yates E: Weir]]
===Reno's attack===
The first detachment to attack was Major Reno's, conducted after receiving orders from Custer issued by Lt. [[William W. Cooke]]. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village's size, location, or propensity to stand and fight, were to pursue the Indians and "bring them to battle." However, Custer did promise to "support [Reno] with the whole outfit." Reno's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3:00 p.m. and immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away."
Sending a message to Custer, but hearing nothing in return, Reno advanced rapidly northward, stating that he drove the enemy "with ease." However, he suspected "a trap" and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment, dismounting and deploying in a [[skirmish line]], as standard army doctrine called for. In a skirmish line, every fourth trooper handled the horses for the troopers taking firing positions, thus immediately reducing a fighting force by 25 percent. The troopers on the skirmish line were positioned five to ten yards apart, with officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. After about 20 minutes of long distance firing, Reno's battalion had taken only one casualty but the odds against him had become more obvious (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had massed for a mounted attack of more than 500 warriors,<ref>Goodrich, Thomas. ''Scalp Dance: Indian Warfare on the High Plains, 1865-1879.'' Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997. p. 242</ref> turning Reno's exposed left flank and forcing him into a hasty withdrawal into the timber in a loop of the river.<ref>Perrett, Bryan. ''Last Stand: Famous Battles Against the Odds.'' London: Arms & Armour, 1993; p.8</ref> Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down, and he was then forced to make a disorderly retreat across the river to reach the high ground of the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was confused and immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Reno later reported that three officers and 29 troopers were killed during the retreat and subsequent [[ford (river)|fording]] of the river, with another officer and 13-18 men missing. Most of these men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment.
[[Image:little bighorn memorial overview with clouds.jpg|thumb|300px|The battlefield today.]]

Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno's shaken troops soon linked up with the detachment of Captain Benteen, arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the hand-written message "Come on...big village, be quick...bring pacs" ("pacs" referring to ammunition, meaning that by this time Custer was most likely aware of the large numbers of Indians they were having to face). Benteen's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were then reinforced by McDougall and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all-around defense and dug [[defensive fighting position|rifle pits]] using whatever implements they had among them, including knives.

Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4:20 p.m., Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno's badly wounded and hard-pressed battalion, rather than continuing on toward Custer. Benteen's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5:00 p.m., Capt. [[Thomas Weir]] and Company D moved out against orders to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge, and could see in the distance Indian warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5:25 p.m., Custer's battle had concluded, and what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors shooting at dead bodies on the Custer battlefield. The other companies eventually followed by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing Indian attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. There, they remained pinned down for another day, but the Indians were unable to breach this tightly held position.

=== Custer's fight ===
Interpretations of Custer's fight are conjecture, since none of his men survived and Indian accounts are conflicting. The gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen's men was from Custer's fight. His force of roughly 210 men was engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (6 km) to the north. Having isolated Reno's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand" remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north, and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village.

[[Image:X-33628.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Lieutenant Colonel Custer on horseback and his U. S. Army troops make their last charge at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. It inaccurately shows Custer with a cavalry saber and wearing a blue uniform {bottom center}.]]
[[Image:X-33633.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Lieutenant Colonel Custer and his U. S. Army troops are defeated in battle with Native American Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne, on the Little Bighorn Battlefield, June 25, 1876 at Little Bighorn River, Montana.]]
[[Image:X-33630.jpg|thumb|300px|left|"Custer's Last Stand." Lieutenant Colonel Custer standing center, wearing buckskin, with few of his soldiers of the Seventh Cavalry still standing. Inaccurately shows Custer with a Cavalry saber and long hair.]]

Custer then rode north along the bluffs, and descended into a drainage called Medicine Tail Coulee, which led to the river. Some historians believe that part of Custer's force descended the [[coulee]], going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. Indian accounts (dismissed by traditional historians, though given more credence today) report that Custer first attempted to ford the river at this northern end of the camp. Gunfire from Indian sharpshooters, however, drove Custer and his men back. One account notes that these Indian sharpshooters shot several of the cavalrymen (including one in a buckskin jacket) off of their mounts, and that other troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses.<ref>Michno, 1997, pp. 117-119</ref> This Lakota account is also supported by the testimony of the Cheyenne warriors who survived the fight.<ref>Grinnell, 1915, pp. 300-301.</ref>

This scenario might explain Custer's purpose for Reno's attack, indicating he may have intended to coordinate a "hammer-and-anvil" tactic, with Reno holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have been inspired by the belief that it was the north end of the Indian camp, when in fact it was only the middle.

Many historians, however, claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry later claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians, including the young Crow scout ''Ashishishe'', known by his translated name [[Curley]], and the trooper [[Peter Thompson (soldier)|Peter Thompson]], who allegedly fell behind Custer's column. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial, with battle participants and historians almost universally discrediting Thompson's claim.

A new interpretation is based on recent archeological evidence and Indian testimony. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of .45-70 shell cases along the ridge line, known today as Nye-Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Historians believe Custer divided his battalion into two (and possibly three) company battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.

One of the battalions made a feint attack down Medicine Tail Coulee to Minneconjou Ford (the north and south forks are shaped like a "V"), with the intent of relieving the pressure on Reno's detachment, possibly last seen by Custer withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. The second battalion, on the heights, would have provided long range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering battalion would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.

Custer's fight, from this point, is difficult to follow. According to the location of the bodies found on the battlefield, Company L was possibly detached and dismounted to provide a rear guard, and may have been the last organized defense. The remaining companies were forced up the ridge to the top of what is known today as Custer Hill. The hilltop itself was probably too small to accommodate the survivors and wounded. According to Indian testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands" were apparently made by several groups.

By almost all accounts, within less than an hour Custer's force was completely annihilated.<ref>Miller, David Humphries, "Custer's Fall", Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1985, pg 158</ref><ref>Graham, Benteen letter to Capt. R.E. Thompson, pg 211</ref><ref>Graham, Gall's Narrative, p. 88</ref> David Humphries Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Indian survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one-half hour.<ref>Miller, David Humphreys, ''Custer's Fall, the Indian Side of the Story''. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1985, (reprint of 1957 edition) pg 158</ref> The Lakota asserted that [[Crazy Horse]] personally led one of the large groups of warriors that eventually overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast.<ref>Graham, pp. 45-56.</ref><ref>Michno, 1997</ref> Eyewitness accounts from Indians were collected for many years after the battle and continue to be analyzed.<ref>Miller, David Humphries, "Custer's Fall", Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1985</ref><ref>For an analysis of Curley's account, see Graham, pp. 10-18. Fox, pp. 316-317 discusses Thompson.</ref>

The exact number of Indian warriors participating in the battle has never been determined and remains controversial. It has been estimated that in the overall battle the warriors outnumbered the 7th Cavalry by approximately three to one, or roughly 1800 against 600.<ref>cf Michno's account of the numbers, pp. 10-20. He gives a low estimate of about 1000 warriors. Other scholars have given much higher numbers, upwards of 3000. A moderate number, 1800-2000, has been advocated by Fox and Utley.</ref> In Custer's fight, this ratio could have increased to as high as nine to one (1800 against 200) after his isolated command became the main focus of the fighting. Some historians, however, claim the ratio of the Custer fight to be as low as three to one. Nevertheless, Custer's detachment was certainly outnumbered and was caught in the open on unfamiliar terrain.

It has been claimed in defense of Custer that some of the Indians were armed with repeating [[Spencer repeating rifle|Spencer]], [[Winchester rifles]] and [[Henry rifle|Henry rifles]], while the 7th Cavalry carried single-shot [[Springfield Model 1873]] carbines, caliber .45-70.<ref>Michno, 1997, pp. 212, 226</ref> These rifles had a slower rate of fire than the aforementioned repeating rifles and tended to jam when overheated. The carbines had been issued with a copper cartridge, and troopers soon discovered that the copper expanded in the breech when heated upon firing, thus jamming the rifle. Troopers were forced to extract the cartridges manually with a knife blade, rendering the carbines useless in combat except as a club. Indian accounts, documented in paintings on buffalo hides, indicate a fight between bows and arrows and cavalry pistols.<ref>Michno, 1997, p. 221: testimony of Iron Hawk; also, Grinnell, 1915, pp. 300-301.</ref> This representation may support the claims of the Army's carbines malfunctioning.

Nevertheless, the Springfield Model 1873 was selected by the Army Ordinance Board after extensive testing in competition with other rifles. It was considered to be the most reliable rifle after multiple weathering tests. The choice of a single-shot rifle over repeat-firing rifles was deliberate, following the Army's emphasis at that time on marksmanship and taking into account the fact that every cartridge arrived at the end of a 1000-mile supply line. While Indian accounts of the Custer fight note men throwing down their rifles, possibly in fear or anger, allegations of jammed rifles do not appear in other confrontations during the Indian Wars.

In addition to rifles (including antiquated muzzle-loaders and Army Sharps carbines, which the Indians acquired years earlier in trades with the settlers along the South Platte), opposing warriors carried a large variety of primitive weapons including [[bow and arrow|bows and arrows]] and several styles of heavy, stone-headed war clubs. It is believed that at least half of the Indian warriors were armed only with bows and "many arrows," making it the primary weapon.<ref>Testimony of American Horse, in Grinnell, p. 302, fn. 4.</ref> Many Indians, including the thirteen year-old [[Black Elk]], claimed to have acquired their first gun from dead troopers at the battle.<ref>Michno, 1997, pp. 85, 98.</ref> The Sioux warrior White Bull described the Indians as systematically stripping slain troopers of their guns and cartridge belts so that as the losses mounted among Custer's men, the gunfire from the Indians steadily increased.<ref>Vestal, Stanley. ''Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull.'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1934; also, Michno, 1997, p. 216-217: testimony of Red Hawk; p. 221: testimony of Iron Hawk.</ref> The Cheyenne participants gave similar testimony: the Indians' firepower was increased by the new carbines they took off the soldiers, and the large amounts of ammunition they were constantly recovering from the saddlebags of the troopers' horses.<ref>Grinnell, p. 302</ref>

The exposed terrain of the battlefield gave Lakota and Cheyenne bows and arrows a deadly advantage. The heights above the Little Bighorn River, unlike the valley itself, are considered completely unsuited for mounted troops. Custer's men were essentially trapped on higher ground from which [[direct fire]] at the Indians through the brush would have been difficult. On the other hand, the Lakota and Cheyenne would have been able to shoot their arrows from heavy sagebrush (below the ridge where Custer's men were making their stand) by aiming an arch [[indirect fire|over obstacles]] at the puffs of smoke from the troopers' weapons. A large volume of arrows could have ensured severe casualties and, in fact, many of the slain troopers discovered were found to have multiple arrows protruding from their bodies. Many of the dead cavalrymen also appeared to have their skulls crushed, possibly by the stone-headed war clubs.<ref>cf. Goodrich, p. 246. For illustrations of the war clubs, see Mails, Thomas E. ''Mystic Warriors of the Plains.'' New York: Marlowe & Co., 1996. pp. 464-71.</ref> It is unknown if these injuries occurred during the battle or post-mortem.

=== Custer's resistance===

Recent archaeological work at the battlefield site indicates that organized resistance in the form of skirmish lines probably took place. The remainder of the battle possibly took on the nature of a running fight. Skirmish lines established were most likely overwhelmed quickly. Studies show that it would have taken an hour to cover the long stretch over which the troopers died and by most accounts, the battle was over within this time. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder on the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. As the Custer field is unique, in that markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen a couple of years after the battle, the placements of troops have been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Miles W. Keogh and strung out towards the Little Big Horn River. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have become untenable. Recent documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand," as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that Custer's troops weren't surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. At this point, the fight became a rout with warriors riding down the fleeing troopers and hitting them with lances and coup sticks.<ref>Michno, 1997, p. 215: testimony of Yellow Nose.</ref> Many of these troopers were believed to have ended up in a deep ravine 300-400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies, including scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in the gulch, their deaths believing to have served as the battle's final actions. According to other Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire.<ref>Michno, 1997, pp. 284-285</ref> Many of the Indian casualties were believed to have been suffered during this closing segment of the battle.

Indian casualties have never been determined and estimates vary widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Indian listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. The Sioux Chief Red Horse told Col. W. H. Wood that the Indians suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle.<ref>Graham, Col. W. A. ''The Custer Myth''. NY, Bonanza Books, 1953, pg 60.</ref> Many historians do not agree with these categorical numbers, since Indians were not known to keep such statistics. It is also believed that many Indian participants simply fabricated casualty numbers to appease frustrated historians.

=== The aftermath ===
After the Custer force was annihilated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9:00 p.m.) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen's leadership with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M.<ref>Reno Court of Inquiry</ref> On [[June 26]], the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the Indians drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout [[White Man Runs Him]] was the first to tell General Terry's officers that Custer's force had "been wiped out." Reno and Benteen's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. Two of the regiment's three surgeons had been with Custer's column; the remaining doctor was assisted by interpreter [[Fred Gerard]].

The soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until Terry's arrival and were reportedly stunned by the news. An examination was immediately made of the Custer battle site, but soldiers could not determine what exactly had transpired. There was evidence of organized resistance including what appeared to be breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill.<ref>Michno, "Lakota Noon", Mountain Press Publishing.</ref> The Indian dead had mostly been removed from the field. The 7th's dead were identified as best as possible and hastily buried where they fell. Custer was found to have been shot in the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered post-mortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture. Several Indian accounts do note multiple soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle, but the claim of Custer's suicide is usually discounted since he was right-handed. His body was found near the top of Custer Hill, also known as "Last Stand Hill," where a large obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th's casualties now stands. Most of the dead had been stripped of their clothing, mutilated, and were in an advanced state of decomposition making identification of many of the bodies impossible.<ref>Brininstool, 60-62.</ref>

Several days after the battle, [[Curley]], Custer's Crow scout who was relieved of duty near Medicine Tail Coulee, gave an account of the battle which indicated that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river, but had been driven back, retreating towards the hill where his body was found.<ref>Fox, pp. 10-13.</ref> The scenario seemed compatible with Custer's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, forming the basis of many popular accounts of the battle. The story of Custer's purported heroic attack across the river, however, was undermined by the account of participant [[Chief Gall]], who told Lt. Edward Godfrey that Custer never came close to the river.<ref>Godfrey incorporated this into his important publication in 1892 in ''The Century Magazine''</ref> Gall's account, however, was criticized by Cheyenne and Sioux participants.<ref>see above</ref>

The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier in the five companies with Custer was killed, although for years rumors persisted of survivors.<ref>Graham, 146. Lt. Edward Godfrey reported finding a dead 7th Cavalry horse (shot in the head), a grain sack, and a carbine at the mouth of the Rosebud River. He conjectured that a soldier had escaped Custer's fight and rafted across the river, abandoning his played out horse.</ref> The sole surviving animal reportedly discovered on the battlefield by General Terry's troops was Captain Keogh's horse [[Comanche (horse)|Comanche]].<ref> Badly wounded, the horse had been overlooked or left behind by the Native Americans, who had taken the other surviving horses. Comanche was taken back to the steamer ''Far West'' and returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to be nursed back to health.</ref>

[[Image:Custer's Last Stand, 1877.png|thumb|right|250px|Scene of Custer's last stand, looking in the direction the Indian village and the deep ravine, 1877.]]
In 1878, the army awarded 24 [[Medal of Honor|Medals of Honor]] to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded.<ref>[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/mohind.htm U.S. Army Medal of Honor website.]</ref> Few questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers.

Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers<ref name="hils"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=w-VCAAAAIAAJ&dq=record+of+living+officers+of+the+united+states+army&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=MeDKM_elvY&sig=-nGu11f1Oj_XkGuzb3WbkfoFCjE| title = Records of Living Officers of the United States Army (1884)| format = | work = | publisher = eBay.com| accessdate = 17 Jan| accessyear = 2008}} Major Elmer I. Otis of the [[1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)|1st Cavalry]] was promoted to replace Custer effective 25 June 1876, but did not report until February 1877. Two 1876 West Point graduates designated for the 7th Cavalry were advanced to 1st lieutenant effective 10 days after their graduation. Four others appointed to other regiments, along with eight experienced 2nd lieutenants, were transferred and designated one to each company of the 7th. However five declined the appointment, replaced by 2nd lieutenants of infantry and unappointed new officers in July and August 1876. Only three replacements were able to report while the 7th was still in the field.</ref> and recruiting efforts begun to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the [[Yellowstone River]] at the mouth of the Big Horn and reinforced by Gibbon's column. On [[August 8]], [[1876]], after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up [[Rosebud Creek]] in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the [[Little Missouri River]]. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Lincoln to reconstitute.

The Army as a whole was expanded by 2,500 men to meet the emergency resulting from the disaster befalling the 7th Cavalry. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]-controlled [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] actually abandoned for a session its campaign to drastically curtail the size of the Army. Word of Custer's fate reached the [[44th United States Congress]] as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[United States Senate|Senate]]. A measure originally sponsored by the [[Texas]] delegation to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men was approved on July 24, and the ceiling on the size of the Army temporarily lifted by 2,500 on August 15.<ref>Utley, Robert M. (1973) ''Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian 1866-1890'', pp. 64 and 69 note 11.</ref>

== Battle controversies ==
The battle was the subject of a U.S. Army Court of Inquiry, made at Reno's request, in 1879 in [[Chicago]], in which Reno's conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony was presented suggesting that he was drunk and a coward, but since none of this came from army officers, Reno's conduct was found to be without fault. The charge of cowardice has been leveled at Reno throughout the years due to his hastily ordered retreat. Reno defenders point out that while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it was clear that he was outnumbered and outflanked.

Benteen has been criticized for "dawdling" on the first day of the fight, and supposedly disobeying Custer's written orders to bring "pacs" (ammunition).

Critics believe Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign, refusing the use of a battery of Gatling guns and General Terry's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry led by Jim Brisbin. Custer's reasoning was that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. Considering his rapid march en route to the Little Big Horn, averaging almost 30 miles a day, this was an accurate assessment. Each gun was hauled by four horses and it often became necessary for soldiers to drag the guns by hand over obstacles. Custer also believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force encountered, and the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When the offer of the men of the 2nd Cavalry was made, he reportedly replied to Brisbin that the 7th "could handle anything."<ref>Connell, Evan S. (1997). ''Son of the Morning Star''. New York: HarperPerennial, p. 257.</ref> It is believed Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how much.

The division of his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) is believed to be evidence of inadequate reconnaissance on his part in determining the size and location of the Indian village. By the time the battle began, Custer's men were widely scattered and unable to support each other.<ref>Goodrich, Thomas (1984). ''Scalp Dance: Indian Warfare on the High Plains, 1865-1879''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, p. 233.</ref><ref>Wert, Jeffry D. (1964/1996) ''Custer: The controversial life of George Armstrong Custer''. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 327.</ref> It is believed one of Custer's greatest fears before the battle was the combined tribes escaping to the south and scattering into different groups, thus he considered an immediate attack to be the course of action. Criticism of Custer was not universal, as Lieutenant General [[Nelson A. Miles]] wrote in 1877 while investigating the battlefield, "The more I study the moves here [on the Little Big Horn], the more I have admiration for Custer."<ref>Sklenar, page 341.</ref>

For years, a debate raged as to whether Custer had disobeyed Terry's orders by attacking the village before his reinforcements arrived. Almost 100 years after the battle, a document surfaced indicating Terry had actually given Custer considerable freedom to attack the Indians if he deemed the action necessary.

[[Image:Pawnee bill wild west show c1905.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Death of Custer'' - A dramatic portrayal of Native American man ''stabbing'' Custer, with dead Native Americans lying on ground, in scene by Pawnee Bill's Wild West Show performers. c.1905]]
Custer's widow [[Elizabeth Bacon Custer]] actively affected the history of the battle by suppressing criticism of her husband. A number of participants decided to wait for her death before disclosing what they knew; however, she outlived almost all of them. As a result, the event was recreated along tragic [[Victorian era|Victorian]] lines in numerous books, films and other media. Custer's legend was soon embedded in the American imagination as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces, an image popularized in ''[[Wild West Shows|Wild West]]'' extravaganzas hosted by showman [[Buffalo Bill|"Buffalo Bill" Cody]], [[Pawnee Bill]], and others.

In November 2006, an [[ethnology|ethnologist]] theory by Thomas Bailey Marquis in his 1933 book ''The Cheyennes of Montana'' was revived. Marquis stated that the Indians present at Little Bighorn (and on the Plains in general) considered the Sioux War of 1876 to be a misnomer, that in actuality the Lakota participated not as the main antagonist of the U.S. government but only as allies of the Cheyenne, whom they considered the actual objective of the military campaign. Had the Lakota, who did not have the tribal unity and central authority epitomizing the Cheyenne, not taken this view, the theory concludes that the close alliance between the peoples would not have occurred and the outcomes of the campaign could have been greatly different.<ref name="cheyenne"> {{cite web | last =Liberty | first =Dr. Margot | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/cheyenneprimacy.htm| title = Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To "The Great Sioux War Of 1876| format = | work = | publisher = Friends of the Little Bighorn| accessdate = 13 Jan| accessyear = 2008}}</ref>

By the end of the 20th century, the general recognition of the mistreatment of the various Indian tribes in the settling of the [[American West]], and the perception of [[U.S. Cavalry|U.S. Cavalry's]] role in it, have altered the image of the battle (and by extension, of Custer) to that of a confrontation between relentless U.S. westward expansion and Native Americans defending their traditional lands and way of life.

==Battlefield preservation==
{{main|Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument}}

[[Image:little-bighorn-memorial-sculpture-2.jpg|thumb|300px|Indian Memorial]]
The site was first preserved as a [[U.S. National Cemetery|national cemetery]] in 1879, to protect graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers buried there. It was redesignated ''Custer Battlefield [[U.S. National Monument|National Monument]]'' in 1946, and later renamed ''Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument'' in 1991.

Memorialization on the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to U.S. dead. This was replaced with the current marble obelisk in 1881. In 1890 the marble blocks that dot the field were added to mark the place where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell. The bill that changed the name of the national monument also called for an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill. On Memorial Day 1999, two red granite markers were added to the battlefield where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, there are now a total of ten warrior markers (three at the Reno-Benteen Defense Site, seven on the Custer Battlefield).<ref>National Park Service website for the Little Bighorn Battlefield</ref>

== 7th Cavalry officers at the Little Bighorn ==
[[Image:Little Bighorn memorial obelisk.jpg|thumb|400px|right|An obelisk commemorates the U.S. Army dead.]]
*Commanding Officer: Lt. Col. [[George Armstrong Custer]] ''killed''
*Maj. [[Marcus Reno]]
*Adjutant: 1st Lt. [[William W. Cooke]] ''killed''
*Assistant Surgeon [[George Edwin Lord]], ''killed''
*Acting Assistant Surgeon [[James Madison DeWolf]], ''killed''
*Acting Assistant Surgeon [[Henry Rinaldo Porter]]
*Chief of Scouts: 2nd Lt. [[Charles Varnum]] (detached from A Company) ''wounded''
*2nd in command of Scouts: 2nd Lt. [[Luther Hare]] (detached from K Company)
*Pack Train commander: 1st Lt. [[Edward Mathey]] (detached from M Company)
*A Company: Capt. [[Myles Moylan]], 1st Lt. [[Charles DeRudio]]
*B Company: Capt. [[Thomas McDougall]], 2nd Lt. [[Benjamin Hodgson]] ''killed''
*C Company: Capt. [[Thomas Custer]] ''killed'', 2nd Lt. [[Henry Moore Harrington]] ''killed''
*D Company: Capt. [[Thomas Weir]], 2nd Lt. [[Winfield Edgerly]]
*E Company: 1st Lt. [[Algernon Smith]] ''killed'', 2nd Lt. [[James G. Sturgis]] ''killed''<ref name="jgs"> Sturgis was the son of the 7th Cavalry's Colonel. {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/ssturgis.htm| title = Samuel Davis Sturgis| format = | work = | publisher = Arlington National cemetery| accessdate = 14 Jan| accessyear = 2008}}</ref>

*F Company: Capt. [[George Yates]] ''killed'', 2nd Lt. [[William Reily]] ''killed''
*G Company: 1st Lt. [[Donald McIntosh]] ''killed'', 2nd Lt. [[George Wallace (7th Cavalry)|George Wallace]]
*H Company: Capt. [[Frederick Benteen]], 1st Lt. [[Francis Gibson]]
*I Company: Capt. [[Myles Keogh]] ''killed'', 1st Lt. [[James Porter (7th Cavalry)|James Porter]] ''killed''
*K Company: 1st Lt. [[Edward Godfrey]]
*L Company: 1st Lt. [[James Calhoun (7th Cavalry)|James Calhoun]] ''killed'', 2nd Lt. [[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6990088 John J. Crittenden (soldier)]] ''killed''
*M Company: Capt. [[Thomas French (soldier)|Thomas French]]

''Lt. Smith (A Company) was temporarily commanding E Company, whose captain was not in the field. Lt. DeRudio (E Company) replaced Smith in A Company, and Lt. Sturgis (M Company) replaced him. Lt. Calhoun (C Company) was temporary commander of L Company, which had no officers in the field. Lt. Crittenden ([[20th U.S. Infantry]]) was on temporary duty with L Company for the same reason. Lt. Reily was unassigned and on temporary duty with F Company.''

[[Image:Littlebighorn HR Locke.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Photo taken in 1894 by [[H.R. Locke]] on Battle Ridge looking toward Last Stand Hill top center. Wooden Leg Hill can be seen at the far top right.]]

== Civilians killed ==
*[[Boston Custer]]: brother of George & Thomas, Forager for the 7th
*[[Mark Kellogg (reporter)|Mark Kellogg]]: Reporter
*[[Henry Armstrong Reed]]: Nephew of Custer's, Herder for the 7th
*[[Frank C. Mann]]: Packer (killed during the fight on the bluffs)

==Notable scouts/interpreters in the battle==
*[[Charley Reynolds]]: Scout for the 7th, ''killed''
*[[Bloody Knife]]: Arikara/Lakota Scout for the 7th, ''killed''
*[[Curley]]: Crow Scout for the 7th
*[[Mitch Bouyer]]: Scout/interpreter for the 7th, ''killed''
*[[Isaiah Dorman]]: Interpreter for the 7th, ''killed''
*[[Fred Gerard]]: Interpreter for the 7th
*[[White Man Runs Him]]: Crow Scout for the 7th
*[[Goes Ahead]]: Crow Scout for the 7th
*[[Hairy Moccasin]]: Crow Scout for the 7th
*White Swan: Crow Scout for the 7th
*Half Yellow Face: Crow Scout for the 7th<ref>Above table based upon Nichols, ''Men With Custer''...</ref>
*[[John D. Lindsay]]: Scout for the 7th, ''wounded''

==Prominent Native Americans in the battle==
*[[American Horse (elder)|American Horse]] (Miniconjou Lakota)
*[[Buffalo Calf Road Woman]] (Cheyenne)
*[[Chief Crow]], (Sioux)
*[[Minnie Hollow Wood]], (Lakota)
*[[Crazy Horse]] (Oglala Lakota)
*[[Curley]] (Crow)
*[[Chief Gall|Gall]] (Hunkpapa Lakota)
*[[Goes Ahead]], (Crow)
*[[Hairy Moccasin]], (Crow)
*[[He Dog]] (Oglala Lakota)
*[[Hump (chief)|Hump]] (Minniconjou Lakota), ''wounded''
*[[Lame White Man]] (Cheyenne), ''killed''
*[[Moving Robe Woman]] (Hunkpapa Lakota)
*[[One Who Walks With the Stars]] (Oglala Lakota)
*[[Rain-in-the-Face]] (Hunkpapa Lakota)
*[[Short Bull]] (Brulé Lakota)
*[[Sitting Bull]] (Hunkpapa Lakota) ''spiritual leader in the camp, but non-combatant''
*[[Two Moons]] (Cheyenne)
*[[White Bull]] (Sioux)
*[[Wooden Leg]] (Cheyenne)
*[[Black Elk]] (Oglala Lakota)
*[[Red Horse]] (Sioux)
*[[Trout of Rushing Water]] (Cheyenne)

==Battle of the Little Big Horn in popular culture==

*Soon after the battle, Anheuser-Busch commissioned a painting of "Custer's Last Stand" which was distributed as a print to saloons all over America. The painting itself was so common as to became a cultural icon. It is reputed to still be in some bars today.

*The [[1936 in film|1936]] [[Serial (film)|film serial]] ''[[Custer's Last Stand (serial)|Custer's Last Stand]]'' is a heavily fictionalised version of events leading up to the battle.

*One of the most famous films based on the incident was ''[[They Died with Their Boots On]]'' (1941), a highly fictionalized version of Custer ([[Errol Flynn]]) and the battle.

*The 1958 [[Walt Disney Pictures|Walt Disney Studios]] film ''Tonka'' is a highly fictionalized history of the horse [[Comanche (horse)|Comanche]] that survived the battle. This was the first film to tell the story from the Indian point of view, with a fairly accurate version of the battle taking place near the end of the film.

*In a 1963 episode of ''[[The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)|The Twilight Zone]]'' entitled "[[The 7th Is Made Up of Phantoms]]," three members of a modern National Guard troop suddenly join the battle on the side of Custer.

*Published in 1964, Thomas Berger's novel "[[Little Big Man]]" (on which the later movie was based) follows the life story of one Jack Crabb, as he becomes the sole white survivor of the Custer battle.

*The 1965 film ''The Great Sioux Massacre'' stars [[Philip Carey]] as Custer and [[Darren McGavin]] as Captain Benteen.

*A 1967 television series ''Custer'', starring Wayne Maunder in the title role, lasted 17 episodes before cancellation.

*The 1967 film ''[[Custer of the West]]'' stars [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] as Custer and concludes with the Little Big Horn battle.

*The 1970 film ''[[Little Big Man]]'' portrays the battle in a comedic light, complete with a manic Custer ([[Richard Mulligan]]) realizing to his horror that he and his command are "being wiped out."

*The 1977 television film ''The Court-Martial of George Armstrong Custer'', starring [[James Olson]] as Custer, was based on a controversial best-selling novel by Douglas C. Jones in which Custer survives the battle and must explain his actions in court.

*The television miniseries ''[[Son of the Morning Star]]'', based on [[Evan S. Connell|Evan S. Connell's]] bestselling book, debuted in 1991. The film recounted the story of Custer ([[Gary Cole]]) and the Battle of the Little Big Horn.

*The 2005 TV miniseries ''[[Into the West (TV miniseries)|Into the West]]'' shows a version of the battle.

*[[George MacDonald Fraser]] places his fictional anti-hero, [[Flashman]] at the battle in the book ''[[Flashman and the Redskins]]''. Flashman survives the battle thanks to an Oglala Indian girl (Walking Blanket Woman) who takes pity on him in her eagerness to join the main battle, and to his illegitimate son, Frank Standing Bear, who had grown up among the Sioux. Flashman elsewhere comments that the Battle of the Little Big Horn is more proof that any sane person should run the other way from any military action where the Irish tune [[Garryowen]] is played beforehand. The drinking song was also popular among British soldiers at the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]], which he also survived, barely.

* A short story by [[Frederick Forsyth]], in his collection "The Veteran", concerns a fictional survivor of the battle.

*[[Blazon Stone]] album by German [[power metal]] band [[Running Wild (band)|Running Wild]] includes a song titled "Little Big Horn", depicting the battle.

*The ''[[Histeria!]]'' episode "Megalomaniacs!" featured a sketch about Custer's Last Stand in which the Kid Chorus, misled by its name, think that Custer is running a custard stand. (This sketch only appeared in network reruns to replace a controversial sketch about the [[Spanish Inquisition]].)


*The battle appears on a level of the computer game ''[[Age of Empires III: The War Chiefs]]'' where the player must kill Custer and his troops as part of the Indian army.
*The battle appears on a level of the computer game ''[[Age of Empires III: The War Chiefs]]'' where the player must kill Custer and his troops as part of the Indian army.

Revision as of 06:10, 31 January 2008

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See also Cultural depictions of George Armstrong Custer.

References

  • Sklenar, Larry, To Hell with Honor, General Custer and the Little Big Horn, Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 2000
  • Barnard, Sandy, Digging into Custer's Last Stand. Huntington Beach, California: Ventana Graphics, 1998. ISBN 0-9618087-5-6.
  • Brininstool, E. A., Troopers With Custer. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1994. ISBN 0-8177-1742-9.
  • Connell, Evan S., Son of the Morning Star. New York: North Point Press, 1984. ISBN 0-86547-510-5.
  • Dustin, Fred, The Custer Tragedy: Events Leading Up to and Following the Little Big Horn Campaign on 1876. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers, 1939.
  • Elliot, M.A. Custerology: The Enduring Legacy of the Indian Wars and George Armstrong Custer. University of Chicago Press, 2007. ISBN 0-226-20146-5.
  • Fox, Richard Allan, Jr., Archaeology, History, and Custer's Last Battle. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8061-2496-2.
  • Goodrich, Thomas. Scalp Dance: Indian Warfare on the High Plains, 1865-1879. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997.
  • Graham, Col. William A., The Custer Myth: A Source Book for Custeriana. New York: Bonanza Books, 1953.
  • Grinnell, George Bird (1915). The Fighting Cheyennes. The University of Oklahoma Press reprint 1956. p. 296-307. ISBN: 0-7394-0373-7.
  • Hardoff, R. G. (editor), Camp, Custer and the Little Big Horn. El Segundo, California: Upton and Sons, 1997.
  • Mails, Thomas E. Mystic Warriors of the Plains. New York: Marlowe & Co., 1996.
  • Michno, Gregory F., Lakota Noon, the Indian narrative of Custer's defeat, Mountain Press, 1997.
  • Miller, David, H., Custer's Fall, the Indian Side of the Story, University of Nebraska Press, 1985.
  • Neihardt, John G. (editor), Black Elk Speaks. University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
  • Nichols, Ronald H. (editor), Men with Custer: Biographies of the 7th Cavalry: June 25, 1876 . Hardin, Montana: Custer Battlefield Historical and Museum Association, 2000.
  • In the 2002 war film We Were Soldiers Mel Gibson makes reference to Custer's regiment, The 7th Calvary, which also ended up being the name of his regiment.
  • Nichols, Ronald H. (editor), Reno Court of Inquiry. Hardin, Montana: Custer Battlefield Historical and Museum Association, 1996.
  • Panzeri, Peter, Little Big Horn, 1876: Custer’s Last Stand. London, UK: Osprey, 1995. ISBN 185532458X.
  • Perrett, Bryan. Last Stand: Famous Battles Against the Odds. London: Arms & Armour, 1993.
  • Reno, Marcus A., The official record of a court of inquiry convened at Chicago, Illinois, January 13, 1879, by the President of the United States upon the request of Major Marcus A. Reno, 7th U.S. Cavalry, to investigate his conduct at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, June 25-26, 1876. on-line in the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections
  • Sarf, Wayne Michael, The Little Bighorn Campaign, Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, 1993.
  • Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1934.
  • Viola, Herman J., Little Bighorn Remembered: The Untold Indian Story of Custer's Last Stand. Westminster, Maryland: Times Books, 1999, ISBN 0-812932-5-6-0.
  • Wert, Jeffry D. Custer: The controversial life of George Armstrong Custer. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964/1996.

Notes

Further reading

  • Chiaventone, Frederick J., A Road We Do Not Know: A Novel of Custer at the Little Bighorn. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
  • Connell, Evan S., Son of the Morning Star: Custer and the Little Bighorn. New York: North Point Press, 1984.
  • Gray, John S., Custer's Last Campaign: Mitch Bouyer and the Little Bighorn Reconstructed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
  • Sklenar, Larry, To Hell with Honor, Custer and the Little Bighorn. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
  • Michno, Gregory F., Lakota Noon: The Indian Narratives of Custer's Defeat. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing, 1997.
  • Sandoz, Mari., The Battle of the Little Bighorn. Lippincott Major Battle Series. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1966.
  • Utley, Robert, Custer: Cavalier in Buckskin. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press; Revised edition, 2001.
  • Welch, James w/Stekler, Paul, Killing Custer - The Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Fate of the Plains Indians. New York: Norton, 1994.
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