Discrimination against superheroes

File:Mra2.JPG

A faux-advertisement for the "Mutant Registration Act" which ran in various Marvel Comics cover dated November 1987. Art by Jon Bogdanove.

In Marvel Comics' fictional Marvel Universe, the Registration Acts—the Mutant Registration Act (or MRA) and Superhuman Registration Act (SRA or sometimes SHRA) —are controversial legislative bills which, when passed into law, enforce the mandatory registration of superpowered individuals with the government. The first mention of the broad concept was in Uncanny X-Men #141 (January, 1981). The term "Registration Act" was first used in Uncanny X-Men #181 (May, 1984).

As their names suggest the Mutant Registration Act and the Superhuman Registration Act deal with the registration of mutants and of superhumans respectively. Numerous versions of each bill have been proposed at different times and in different jurisdictions in the Marvel Universe. A newly-passed into law Superhuman Registration Act is a major plot point in Marvel's 2006 crossover limited series Civil War.

The concept has been most extensively explored in comic books, though a version of them has featured in both the original X-Men animated series and the X-Men films.

The issue that the government might seek to regulate the activities of super-heroes has also been explored in other comics, such as those featuring the Justice Society of America, in Watchmen, in Astro City and in Powers, as well as in films such as The Return Of Captain Invincible (1983) and The Incredibles (2004) and in the role-playing game Brave New World (1999).

The Registration Acts as a concept

Publication history

The idea that super-powered individuals might need to be "registered" by the government was first raised in specific relation to mutants. In Uncanny X-Men #141, (written by Chris Claremont and John Byrne) the concept is briefly suggested. In that issue the term "Registration Act" is not used, but one character (Moira MacTaggert) brings up the notion of "registration". In reference to a politician whom she suspects of anti-mutant bigotry she says:

"Registration today, gas chambers tomorrow".

The same issue features mention of the "Mutant Control Act", however it is left unclear exactly what that legislation involves and whether some form of registration is a part of it. However, in New Mutants #1, it was implied that involved the operation of concentration camps.

The term "Mutant Registration Act" was first fully used in Uncanny X-Men #181, by writer Chris Claremont. As the MRA (as it became known) was passed into law in the Marvel Universe it became widely used as a subplot, plot device or background element across Marvel's entire line of titles, especially those featuring mutants (such as Uncanny X-Men, X-Factor and New Mutants) during the late 1980s.

In the early 1990s Chris Claremont left the X-titles and the topic of the MRA began to appear much more rarely in stories. It was still occasionally mentioned, though usually in the past tense, suggesting that it was repealed at some point (though this was never clearly shown) or that it simply ceased to be actively enforced.

However, in an interview regarding the Civil War: X-Men limited series its writer David Hine suggested that it is still law in the Marvel Universe, stating that in the series the idea of bringing "the Mutant Registration Act in line with the SRA" will be discussed.

The idea of an equivalent piece of legislation for non-mutant super-powered individuals - a Superhuman Registration Act - was first raised in comics that were published during the "Acts of Vengeance" crossover in 1989-1990. The issue was most fully explored in Fantastic Four #335-336 by writer Walter Simonson. In the course of the story, the issue was apparently resolved with the proposed Act being shelved.

The concept was then revived in 1993 in Alpha Flight (vol. 1) #120 (May, 1993) by writer Simon Furman. In that issue a "Superpowers Registration Act" becomes law in Canada and went on to be a major plot point in the remainder of the series. However later Alpha Flight series did not make use of the concept.

In 2006 the concept was again revived by writer Mark Millar as the main plot point in Marvel's 2006 Civil War crossover. In preparation for that storyline a new version of the Superhuman Registration Act has been widely mentioned across various Marvel titles, with the issue being most widely discussed and explored in Amazing Spider-Man #529 - 531 (April - June, 2006) by writer J. Michael Straczynski.

Issues, allegories and metaphors

The issue has generally been portrayed in broad terms as being a debate between the rights of the individual (to freedom of action and expression etc.) on one side versus the rights of society at large (to safety from danger or harm) on the other. Does the superpowered individual (mutant or otherwise) have an absolute right to their abilities or does society have a right to constrain or at least monitor them and their expression of those abilities?

Debate on the topic of the registration of super-heroes or mutants as presented in Marvel Comics has generally tended to be slanted in favor of the anti-registration argument, due to the fact that the protagonists of the comics are the powered individuals - the people whose freedoms might be compromised by any such law.

As such the issue has most often been explored in a civil rights context, with the various Acts portrayed as persecutory measures seeking to legislate against a minority group whose minority status is basically innate - an obvious parallel with the struggle of many minority groups against prejudice.

This was especially been the case in the X-Men stories of Chris Claremont, in which the "Act" pertains to mutants (the MRA). The plight of mutants has traditionally been used as an allegory for the struggles of real world minorities such as African Americans and in Claremont's (and other contemporary comic writers in the 1980s) stories the passing of the Mutant Registration Act is generally treated as a negative development, a harbinger of a more repressive climate for mutants, foreshadowing the possible post-apocalyptian future first shown in the "Days of Future Past" storyline.

When the topic of the original Superhuman Registration Act is debated in Fantastic Four #335-336 the issue is explored in a national security context, with the utility of such a law being challenged. In the comics the Fantastic Four argue that super-heroes are already a hugely benevolent force for society and such an act would be unnecessary and possibly counter-productive.

When the issue of an SRA was raised again in Amazing Spider-Man #529 - 531 the prospect of a new SRA is explored once more from a security perspective, with reference being made to the fact that individual super-powered individuals often wield abilities which have massively destructive potential for use, making some mechanism to regulate their activities necessary. As such comparisons and allusions are made to real world issues such as gun control and arms control.

The writer of Civil War, Mark Millar, has stated that that storyline will explore the "civil rights" implications of the SHR as previous stories have done, but will also explore the other side of the argument in more depth, in particular how Marvel super-heroes are, absent an SRA, illegal vigilantes, lacking proper legal authority or oversight.

Terms of the registration acts

The terms of the various registration acts (previous to the 2006 Superhuman Registration Act) have been vaguely and inconsistently portrayed in the comic books.

One aspect of the Acts which has been consistently depicted is their requirement that super-powered individuals surrender their real names to the authorities. For many characters, this would entail the loss of their secret identities.

However, it has been unclear in depictions of the acts (previous to the 2006 SRA) exactly what, outside of the loss of anonymity, "registration" entails - whether it is enacted to enable the government to monitor all powered individuals or whether it is drafted to facilitate the government's licensing and/or employment of individuals who are actively using their powers.

It has also been unclear whether the terms of the acts compel all individuals with mutant or superhuman abilities to register with the government or whether only those individuals who wish to use those abilities actively need register. Further unclear is whether registration means that powered individuals are required to simply report their details to the government or whether registration entails an approval process where the powered individual must fulfill some requirements or meet some criteria before they are allowed to fully use their abilities.

The provisions of the 2006 version of the Superhuman Registration Act have been more specifically outlined. In a June 2006 interview Civil War editor Tom Brevoort confirmed that registrants to the act have to reveal their identities to the government (but not the public) and they have to undergo some basic testing and/or training and satisfy certain (as yet unspecified) standards before they gain legal authorisation to continue to use their abilities to fight crime. Government employment is not mandatory, though it is available to those who wish to take it. This has not remained consistent, though, and characters have made reference to all superpowered individuals being forced to register and enlist in S.H.I.E.L.D.

It was revealed in Amazing Spider-Man #535 that unregistered individuals are sent to a prison in the otherdimensional Negative Zone indefinitely until they agree to register. Iron Man claims that as this is off United States soil, they have almost no civil rights unless the United States Supreme Court explicitly rules otherwise--and he knows they won't (this appears to be a reference to the prison in Guantanamo Bay and George W. Bush's controversial position regarding the treatment of inmates there). This leads Spider-Man to re-evaluate his support of the act. After the major conflict of Civil War ends, all the superhero inmates are transferred to real prisons in the state while the facility is transformed into a Maximum Secrurity Prison for high-threat-level villains such as the Taskmaster and Lady Deathstrike.

Fictional history of the Registration Acts

Mutant Control Act

The first direct mention of a piece of legislation specifically aimed at super-humans in the Marvel Universe comes in Uncanny X-Men #141 (January, 1981) in which the "Mutant Control Act", a law from the future, is mentioned.

In the course of the story, the first part of the two-part "Days of Future Past" storyline, Kate Pryde travels back in time from a dystopian future to the present and possesses the body of her younger self, X-Men member Kitty Pryde. On revealing herself to Kitty's team-mates she recounts to them the series of events which led to her dark future, in the hopes that the X-Men might be able to prevent those events from coming to pass.

One of those pivotal events was the passing of a "Mutant Control Act" by the government of the United States. When the Supreme Court found the law unconstitutional the government responded by reactivating their robot Sentinel program so that they might police the mutant race. The Sentinels interpreted their mandate in such a way that they decided to forcibly take over the government of the country and instituted a harsh regime where mutants were severely persecuted.

The reference to the Mutant Control Act is brief and it is unclear exactly what its provisions would entail, though it would appear that registration forms at least one part of it.

In the course of the story the X-Men are successful in preventing one of the pivotal events which Pryde had described to them (the assassination of Senator Robert Kelly) from occurring, though the story's end is intentionally ambiguous as to whether Pryde's dystopian future was fully avoided. Although no Mutant Control Act has been introduced in the comics, the Mutant Registration Act may be its equivalent and the events of "Days of Future Past" continue to be alluded to in X-Men comics as a possible future.

Mutant Registration Act

Registration as a concept is first mentioned in Uncanny X-Men #141 where Moira MacTaggert suggests that Robert Kelly has decided the registration of mutants by the government is a necessity.

Her suggestion eventually turns out to be accurate, and in the Uncanny X-Men #181 (May, 1984) the first mention of a Mutant Registration Act is made when Kelly is seen discussing his introduction of the bill with a senatorial colleague. By #183 (July, 1984) the Act is mentioned as passed legislation, and in #188 Nightcrawler remarks that it appears to have become accepted as law, suggesting that, unlike the Mutant Control Act in the "Days of Future Past" timeline, it would not be struck down by the Supreme Court.

The passage of the MRA did not have an immediate impact on the plots of any Marvel series, but the legislation continued to be referenced intermittedly in various titles. In at least one instance, (X-Factor #1; February, 1986) the Act is referred to as a "possible new law", an apparent contradiction with its previous depiction as passed legislation. In that story the prospect of the MRA is one of things which motivates Jean Grey and Cyclops to form X-Factor.

The legislation becomes a plot point later when government agent Val Cooper and the mutant terrorist Mystique form Freedom Force, a government sanctioned superhero team (mostly comprising former members of the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants) in Uncanny X-Men #199 (November, 1985). Freedom Force went on to make many appearances where they sought to enforce the MRA by arresting unregistered mutants such as members of the X-Men (e.g. Uncanny X-Men #206; June, 1986), X-Factor (e.g. X-Factor #30; July, 1988) and the New Mutants (e.g. New Mutants #86; February, 1990). They also appeared enforcing the MRA in non-X-Men related titles such as Daredevil #269 (August, 1989).

Captain America (who at this point is John Walker, the character who would later be known as U.S. Agent) and Battlestar - two other officially sanctioned super-heroes - also briefly enforce the Act by capturing the unregistered mutant Meteorite for the government in Captain America (vol. 2) #343 (July, 1988).

During this period of active enforcement of the MRA, the only mutants who are shown publicly protesting the Act were those who were not aligned with the X-Men or its affiliated teams. For example, in X-Factor #33 the Alliance of Evil demonstrates against the MRA in Manhattan and after fighting X-Factor are arrested by Freedom Force and in Captain America #368 (March, 1990) a mutant group called the Resistants are shown protesting the Act in Washington D.C.. Indeed far from publicly agitating against the act, one X-team (X-Factor, in its original form) actually pretend in public to be supporters of the MRA who are actively enforcing it, though in actuality they act to subvert it.

With Freedom Force (the characters most involved in the enforcement of the Act) no longer existing (they disband following a disastrous mission in Iraq in X-Factor Annual #6; 1991) and Chris Claremont (the writer who developed the MRA as a sub-plot) no longer writing X-Men stories after 1992, the Mutant Registration Act stopped appearing prominently in Marvel Universe stories.

The fact that the disappearance of the Mutant Registration Act as a background element coincides roughly with the government's abandonment of their proposed companion Superhuman Registration Act may indicate that following the latter's failure the government lost confidence the MRA and stopped enforcing it. A possible contributing factor to this is the fact that (as is first pointed out in Fantastic Four #335) it proves extremely difficult for authorities to distinguish between mutants and other forms of super-humans. However the current legal status of the MRA in the Marvel Universe has not yet been clearly shown and it is unclear whether the Act is still in effect or if it has been repealed or modified.

During the events of the Superhuman Registration Act, it was revealed that the X-Men and other mutants did not have to apply, since they were already covered by the Mutant Registration Act. This would imply that the act is still in effect, though perhaps not enforced.

1990 Super-human Registration Act

A variation on the concept of the Mutant Registration Act the Superhuman Registration Act concept is originally proposed in comic books published circa the "Acts of Vengeance" storyline, such as Punisher (vol. 2) #29 and Avengers (vol. 1) #313 (both January, 1990).

During that period, in Fantastic Four #335 and 336 (December, 1989; January, 1990) the Fantastic Four go to Congress where a committee is investigating whether an SRA, similar in its provisions to the already in effect Mutant Registration Act, is required for Super-heroes (the MRA only covers individuals who have their powers inherently at birth, not those who acquire their abilities artificially in later life).

In his testimony and in evidence he presents to Congress, Reed Richards argues that a Super-human registration Act is unnecessary as Super-humans have been largely effective and trustworthy in their actions and government regulation would only stifle their ability to protect the world. He argues that those individuals who were likely to act irresponsibly with their powers are also likely to be supervillains and thus would not be candidates for registration anyway.

As the topic is debated he and his teammates are continually attacked by random super-villains whom they easily subdue, though it is unclear if this helps or hinders his arguments. In his final point concerning the lack of any workable definition of superhuman Richards demonstrates a device that scans a human for physical and mental capabilities and compares those to the national average, marking 'significant outliers' as "superhuman". The device identifies several regular humans, including some committee members, as "superhuman" according to those criteria. The proposed legislation is abandoned and registration of superhumans in the United States is not recommended by the committee.

1993 Canadian Super-powers Registration Act

A similarly titled "Super-powers Registration Act" is passed by the Canadian government in Alpha Flight #120 (May, 1993). Introduced by a minister of the Canadian government named Robert Hagon, the Super-powers Registration Act is part of a complex plot engineered by the Master, who is using the alias "Joshua Lord".

The terms of the act entail the government employment of all super-powered individuals, including mutants, who are then enlisted in one of the government Department H "Flight" programs such as "Alpha Flight" and "Gamma Flight".

Although the Act was shown to be controversial and the first series ended with the disbandment of the Canadian government's superteams (the various "Flights") in Alpha Flight (vol. 1) #130 (March 1994), the Canadian SRA is never explicitly repealed or overturned within the comics.

Later Alpha Flight series did not acknowledge the law. As of 2006, rumors began to circulate (encouraged by some Marvel creators such as Mark Millar) that a new Alpha Flight series of some form is in the planning stages.The rumors suggest that the premise of this series would involve American superheroes fleeing the United States to Canada to escape a newly-enacted U.S. Superhuman Registration Act. This suggests that registration is no longer mandatory in the Marvel Universe version of Canada. In July 2006 Civil War editor Tom Brevoort concurred with this sentiment saying "we've seen no evidence of it in ten-plus years of Canadian appearances. So if such legislation did exist, it was evidently repealed at some point."

Other sources, however, such as Michael Avon Oeming's post Civil War title Omega Flight, contradict this statement, which several character mentioning having a Registration Act for years, without the negative effects of the American Superhuman Registration act.

2006 Superhuman Registration Act

File:SHRCard.png

An example of a SHR card

See also: Civil War (comics)

Interest in the concept of the act was revived in various Marvel comic books in 2006. In Amazing Spider-Man #529-531 (April-June 2006), following the events of "Decimation" and the sudden dramatic fall in the Mutant population, the U.S. government again considers a Superhuman Registration Act and Spider-Man and Iron Man travel to Washington D.C. to discuss the issue. In those issues Iron Man is shown to be initially opposed to the idea, while Spider-Man is unsure of his opinion.

In The New Avengers Special: the Illuminati (May, 2006), Iron Man attempts to persuade his Illuminati colleagues to support the SRA, in order to diffuse it. Iron Man predicts that some superhuman or group of superhumans will eventually make a mistake that will cost hundreds of lives (he specifically mentions the Young Avengers and the Runaways as candidates for causing such a catastrophe). After such an event, he went on to predict, the government would inevitably rush to make an example of someone, or everyone, in the superhuman community by passing legislation that would be even more restrictive or persecutory towards them than the proposed SRA. By supporting the Act before it is passed, he suggests, he and his fellow Illuminati might be able to help avert such possible future tragedies and also, by becoming a part of the process, help moderate the legislation so that it would have the minimum possible negative effect on the superhuman community. However, most of the Illuminati members flatly reject Stark's proposal, leading to the disbandment of the group.

In the same issue the first part of Iron Man's prediction are shown to be accurate when a conflict between the New Warriors and a group of supervillains ends with a massive explosion which kills hundreds of children attending a nearby school. As depicted in the Civil War crossover and series, the public outcry that follows this event leads the government (with the support of Iron Man and other Illuminati such as Reed Richards) to quickly enact the Superhuman Registration Act (SHRA), 6 U.S.C. S. 558, which required registration of those with naturally-occurring superhuman abilities, super abilities acquired through science or magic (including extraterrestrials and gods), and even non-super powered humans using exotic technology, such as Iron Man. Enactment of the law on the federal level led to various revisions to state criminal codes (such as Chapter 40, Article 120, Section 120 of the New York Penal Code and Section 245(d) of the California Penal Code) in order to allow state and federal coordination in enforcing the law. This leads to a major schism and conflict among the superheroes, with the anti-SRA side led by Captain America and the pro-SRA side led by Iron Man. Eventually, Iron Man's side wins the conflict and a "Fifty-State Initiative" is established with superhero teams placed in every state of the union.

Other countries followed America's lead and introduced their own Superhuman Registration Acts.

Alternate universe Registration Acts

Ultimate Universe

Although no Registration Act exists in the Ultimate Marvel Universe, there are several laws in place that prohibit superhuman activity. Genetic modification of a human being is illegal, and the Superhuman Test Ban Treaty makes it illegal for nations to employ superhumans. This makes the Test Ban Treaty the polar opposite of the SHRA.

Exiles #12

In Exiles #12 a parallel world is shown, similar to the "Days of Future Past" timeline, in which the passing of a Mutant Registration Act led to the Sentinels taking over the world and herding mutants, superhumans and eventually even humans into concentration camps.

The "Age of Apocalypse" version of Sabretooth, who at that point was a member of the Exiles, stays on this planet in order to raise the infant David Richards (the son of the Rachel Summers and Franklin Richards of that reality).

Marvel Knights: 2099

In an alternate world (Earth-2992) shown in the Marvel Knights: 2099 series of one-shots published in November 2004, a Mutant Registration Act is in effect which mandates that mutants undergo a process which robs them of their abilities.

The Marvel Knights: Mutant 2099 one-shot explained that after the passage of this act the Avengers, X-Men and Fantastic Four opposed the government's enforcement of it and were eventually defeated in a major battle that was fought in front of the Baxter Building. This led all the remaining superheroes to go underground.

The 1992 X-Men animated series

The first episode of the 1992 X-Men Animated Series (Night of The Sentinels (part 1); original airdate: 31 October 1992) mentions that some form of registration is in effect already. In the episode, Jubilee's foster parents worry that they may have to "register her with The Mutant Control Agency" after she manifests her powers for the first time.

But following the attack on Jubilee at a mall, it was revealed that the hidden agenda of Henry Peter Gyrich, the founder of the agency is to deceive the mutants into revealing their identities so the Sentinels could eliminate them due to Gyrich's beliefs that the mutants pose a threat to society. After the destruction of their files, following the X-Men's raid on the agency, the President decides to cancel the registration act. The government's persecution of Mutants is a consistent theme throughout the fifth season of the series.

The X-Men movies

In the first X-Men movie the events of the movie are precipitated when Senator Robert Kelly introduces a Mutant Registration Act to the Senate.

It is the prospect of this proposed legislation that motivates Magneto in his schemes in the film, as he sees it as persecutory towards mutants. He is eventually successful in replacing Kelly with Mystique, who impersonates the Senator and removes the Act from consideration.

In the second movie, X2, the Mutant Registration Act is briefly mentioned when Storm speculates that Nightcrawler's attack on the White House might lead the government to reintroduce the legislation.

Non-Marvel equivalents

In many other super-hero universes the government has intervened to regulate or control the activities of super-heroes. Some examples of this include:

DC Universe

In DC Comics' DC Universe the Justice Society of America chose to disband in 1951 rather than appear in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee, which demanded that they unmask themselves. This was first shown in a back-up story in Adventure Comics (vol. 1) #466 ("The Defeat of the Justice Society!"; December, 1979) by writer Paul Levitz and subsequently further explored in the America vs. The Justice Society 4 issue limited series (January -April 1985) by writers Roy and Dann Thomas.

There is also a piece of legislation called the "Keene Act" (an apparent reference to Watchmen, see below) in the DC Universe. First mentioned in Suicide Squad (vol. 1) #1, (May, 1987) in a story written by John Ostrander, the "Act" is referred to as a piece of legislation from 1961 which gives prisons greater leeway in imprisoning superhumans than ordinary prisoners.

It was more fully explored in Secret Origins (vol. 3) #14 (May, 1987), again written by Ostrander, where it is revealed that the Act was passed in 1961 and it reaffirmed the right (that had been cast into doubt by HUAC in 1951) of superheroes to operate with secret identities. That story also reveals that the later "Ingersoll Amendment" (a reference to comics writer Bob Ingersoll) to the Keene Act, which delineates governmental authority over superhuman activity in times of crisis, was passed into law in 1972.

The Return Of Captain Invincible

In the 1983 comedy film The Return Of Captain Invincible starring Alan Arkin and Christopher Lee, Captain Invincible (Arkin) is a super-hero who was forced into retirement in the 1950s following the government's persecution of him.

In a similar scenario as that faced by the Justice Society, Captain Invincible faced a McCarthy-ish congressional investigation which accused him of being a communist (because of his red cape) and charged him for violating U.S. airspace by flying without a proper license.

As the title suggests a crisis forces Captain Invincible out of retirement in the 1980s which leads to him redeeming his reputation.

Watchmen

In Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons´ 12 issue Watchmen series (September 1986 - October, 1987) extensive reference is made to a law called the "Keene Act".

The series reveals that the actions of superheroes or "costumed vigilantes" in the world of Watchmen caused a New York police strike in 1977, this led to rioting in the streets (shown in Watchmen #2; October, 1986) and the passing of the "Keene Act" which outlaws non-government affiliated vigilantes (mentioned in #4; December, 1986).

The passing of the act led to the retirement of most of the heroes of the world and the series depicts them coming out of retirement to hunt the murderer of the Comedian.

Astro City

In writer Kurt Busiek's Astro City Vol. 2 #6-9 (February - May, 1996) the registration of super-humans is mandated by the city's Mayor Stevenson. In those comic book issues, a super-human serial killer is thought to be active in the city and the Mayor proposes that registration will help apprehend the killer.

Stevenson brings in federal E.A.G.L.E. agents to enforce the new requirement, which is opposed by many active super-heroes. The prominent hero Winged Victory makes outspoken statements opposing registration and several super-humans flout the law and illegally continue their activities without registration.

In Astro City #8 the Mayor is revealed as an alien infiltrator whose actions are part of a planned extraterrestrial invasion. The mayor's policy discredited, Astro City's super-human population unite to defeat the invasion in Astro City #9.

Registration is abandoned at the storyline's conclusion and has not been mentioned again in the series. The issues involved were later collected in the trade paperback Astro City: Confession (ISBN 1-56389-550-1).

Brave New World

In the Brave New World superhero role-playing game originally released by Pinnacle Entertainment Group in 1999 the setting of a dystopian alternate timeline includes a fascist United States government which passed the "Delta Registration Act" after a group of super-villains attempted to assassinate President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963.

In the game the law requires that anybody with super-human abilities must register themselves to the United States Government. Its restrictive provisions include requirements that registrants surrender certain civil rights and notify the police of their whereabouts regularly. The law also mandates that super-powered individuals register within 7 days of first manifesting their abilities, with the penalty for failing to do so being an automatic sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. The Act also legislates for the mandatory military conscription of individual super-powered individuals at any time should their abilities be judged necessary by the government. In the world of the game most other nations have similar laws, though they are far less draconian in their restrictions and enforcement.

Powers

In Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Avon Oeming's Powers series superheroes are outlawed following the events of Powers (vol. 1) #30 (March, 2003) in which Super Shock, the world's most trusted superhero, goes on a massive worldwide killing spree.

This leads all the world's heroes to retire and attempt to live normal lives, though after Powers (vol. 2) #6 (November, 2004) some begin to re-emerge.

The Incredibles

In the world depicted in the 2004 Pixar animated feature film The Incredibles super-heroes are shown in flashback as originally having been required to register with the National Supers Agency (or "NSA"; a possible joke reference to the real-life National Security Agency) in order to fight crime legally.

However, following the Sansweet v. Incredible court case (in which super-heroes were found to be legally liable for the personal injury claims of people who were injured during the course of their activities) most Super-Heroes were forced into retirement due to the potentially massive legal liabilities they faced. In the movie it is explained that to assist the Super-heroes in their retirement the United States government set up a "Superhero Relocation Program" (similar in many ways to the non-fictional Witness Protection Program) which granted heroes amnesty from legal claims provided they permanently retire from hero work and live anonymously.

By the end of the film, Mr. Incredible and his family have returned to their roles as superheroes and the program appears to have been nullified.

External links

• The Annotated JSA checklist: Timeline 1950
• Doug Atkinson's The Annotated Watchmen
• The Grand Comic Book Database
• Uncanny X-Men Net