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In many parts of the world tobacco advertising and even sponsorship of sporting events has been outlawed. The ban on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the [[EU]] in 2005 has prompted Formula One Management to look for races in areas that allow the tobacco sponsored teams to display their [[livery]]. As of 2007, only the [[Scuderia Ferrari]] retains tobacco sponsorship, continuing their relationship with [[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] until 2011.
In many parts of the world tobacco advertising and even sponsorship of sporting events has been outlawed. The ban on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the [[EU]] in 2005 has prompted Formula One Management to look for races in areas that allow the tobacco sponsored teams to display their [[livery]]. As of 2007, only the [[Scuderia Ferrari]] retains tobacco sponsorship, continuing their relationship with [[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] until 2011.


In some jurisdictions, such as [[Saskatchewan|Saskatchewan, Canada,]] the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/smoking/smokingbans.html |title=Banning the butt: Global anti-smoking efforts |date=2008-02-07 |accessdate=2008-05-23 |publisher=CBC News |quote=On Jan. 19, 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada rules the province [Saskatchewan] could reinstate the "shower curtain law" that requires store owners to keep tobacco products out of sight.}}</ref>
In some jurisdictions, such as [[Saskatchewan|Saskatchewan, Canada]] and [[Alberta|Alberta, Canada,]] the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/smoking/smokingbans.html |title=Banning the butt: Global anti-smoking efforts |date=2008-02-07 |accessdate=2008-05-23 |publisher=CBC News |quote=On Jan. 19, 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada rules the province [Saskatchewan] could reinstate the "shower curtain law" that requires store owners to keep tobacco products out of sight.}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 21:04, 23 October 2008

Unlit filtered cigarettes
"Cig" redirects here. For other uses, see Cig (disambiguation).

A cigarette (French "small cigar", from cigar + -ette) is a product consumed through smoking and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives,[1] then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder (generally less than 120 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter). The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder for the purpose of inhalation of its smoke from the other (usually filtered) end, which is inserted in the mouth. They are sometimes smoked with a cigarette holder. The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette but can apply to similar devices containing other herbs, such as cannabis.

Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in tobacco, is addictive.[2] Cigarette use has also been shown to cause multiple types of cancer, heart disease, respiratory disease, circulatory disease, birth defects (which include mental and physical disability) and emphysema.[3][4] On average, each cigarette smoked shortens lifespan by 11 minutes.[5]

Rates of cigarette smoking vary widely. While rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world, they continue to rise in the undeveloped world. [6][7]

A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its smaller size, use of processed leaf, and white paper wrapping. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco.

Cigarettes are the most frequent source of fires in private homes and European Union wishes to ban in 2011 cigarettes that are not fire-safe[8].

History

A reproduction of a carving from the temple at Palenque, Mexico, depicting a Mayan priest smoking from a smoking tube.

The earliest forms of cigarettes have been attested in Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and various psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette, and the cigar, were the most common method of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central and South America until recent times.[9]

Cigarettes were largely unknown in the English-speaking world before the Crimean War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish comrades, who resorted to rolling their tobacco with newsprint.[10]

The cigarette was named some time in the 18th century: beggars in Seville began to pick from the ground the cigar ends left by the señoritos ("rich, young men"), wrapped the tobacco remains with paper and smoked them. The first attested use in this habit can be seen in three 18th-century paintings by Francisco de Goya: La cometa (The Kite), La merienda en el Manzanares (Picnic by the River Manzanares) and El juego de la pelota a pala (The Ball and Paddle Game).

In the George Bizet opera Carmen, which was set in Spain in the 1830s, the title character Carmen was at first a worker in a cigarette factory.

The use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly popular during and after the Crimean War. This was helped by the development of tobaccos that are suitable for cigarette use. During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of cigarettes started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became commonplace on cigarette packets. The United States and The United Kingdom have not yet implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which is considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking.[11] Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body.

The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker.

Manufacturing

Diagram of a cigarette.
1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate.
2. Tipping paper to cover the filter.
3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco.
4. Tobacco blend.

Commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter.[12] While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend, which may contain over 100 ingredients,[13] many of them flavourants for the tobacco. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.[1]

Paper

Main article: Cigarette paper

The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilise the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.[14]


According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, burning agents in cigarette paper are responsible of fires and reducing them would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes[15]. Since 1980s Philipp Morris and RJ Reynolds developped fire-safe cigarettes but they didn't market them. Self-extinguising cigarettes are better value for smokers because a cigarette that burns down to the filter has to be replaced -- whereas one that goes out on its own can always be relit.

The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper.[16] Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish.[17] This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.[18]

New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire-safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nation-wide mandate based on the same standard. Many other U.S. states have passed or are considering fire-safe mandates. [17]

European union wishes to ban in 2011 cigarettes that are not fire-safe. According to a study made by European Union in 16 European countries, 11000 fires were due to cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. They caused 520 deaths and 1600 people injured [19]

Tobacco blend

The tobacco end of a cigarette

The process of blending, like the blending of scotch and cognac, gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavour profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.[20]

Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing by-products in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several by-products such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate").[20] To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these by-products are processed separately into forms where they can then be possibly added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco by-products include:

  • Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin.[21]
  • Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size (~0.599 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing.[22] RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco by-products, processing the leftover tobacco fibres from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system.[1]
  • Expanded (ES) or improved stems (IS): ES are rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stems follow the same process but are simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These two products look similar in appearance but are different in taste.[20]

Whole tobacco can also be processed into a product called expanded tobacco. The tobacco is "puffed", or expanded, by saturating it with supercritical carbon dioxide and heating the CO2 saturated tobacco to quickly evaporate the CO2. This quick change of physical state by the CO2 causes the tobacco to expand in a similar fashion as polystyrene foam. This is used to produce light cigarettes ("Lights") by reducing the density of the tobacco and thus maintain the size of a cigarette while reducing the amount of tobacco used in each cigarette.[20]

A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf and oriental-leaf tobacco will be mixed with humectants such as propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavouring products and enhancers such as cocoa, licorice, tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The leaf tobacco will then be shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES and IS. A perfume-like flavour/fragrance, called the "topping" or "toppings", which is most often formulated by flavor companies, will then be blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavour and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain brand name.[20] As well, they replace lost flavours due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally the tobacco mixture will be filled into cigarettes tubes and packaged.

In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal[1] and the plant stem.[23] The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf.[24]

Taxation

Cigarettes are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field.[25] In the United States, the states partially determine the rate of cigarette taxes, and states where tobacco is a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes least.[26] It has been shown that higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10 percent increase in the price of cigarettes reduced youth smoking by about seven percent and overall cigarette consumption by about four percent.[27] Thus increased cigarette taxes are proposed as a means to reduce smoking.

Many people in the UK now illegally import cigarettes due to the increasing tax. A packet is less than half the price in all other countries, making illegal importers a large profit, while still providing very cheap cigarettes. The average price for 20 legal cigarettes is £5.20, while imported packs are sold for less than £3; this is due to the extreme taxation.

Sale

A smoking symbol, usually signifying that smoking is allowed.
A Woolworths supermarket cigarette counter in NSW, Australia. Other Australian states currently prohibit such large displays.

Before the Second World War many manufacturers gave away collectible cards, one in each packet of cigarettes. This practice was discontinued to save paper during the war and was never generally reintroduced, though for a number of years Natural American Spirit cigarettes included "vignette" cards depicting endangered animals and American historical events; this series was discontinued in 2003. On April 1, 1970 President Richard Nixon signed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act into law, banning cigarette advertisements on television in the United States starting on January 2, 1971. However, some tobacco companies attempted to circumvent the ban by marketing new brands of cigarettes as "little cigars"; examples included Tijuana Smalls, which came out almost immediately after the ban took effect, and Backwoods Smokes, which reached the market in the winter of 1973–1974 and whose ads used the slogan, "How can anything that looks so wild taste so mild."

Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under 18 has been prohibited by law in all fifty states of the United States. The legal age of purchase has been additionally raised to 19 in Alabama, Alaska, New Jersey, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk, and Onondaga Counties in New York.[28] The intended effect of this is to prevent upper class high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. Legislation was pending as of 2004 in some other states. In Massachusetts[29] and Virginia[citation needed], parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited.

Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for Quebec, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Alberta, where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.

Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales and Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 will be in force in Northern Ireland starting 1 September 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of the smaller ten-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products came into force on May 31, 2007 in a bid to cut underaged smoking. The UK Department of Health plans to follow suit with the ten-pack ban.

Tabak-Trafik in Vienna. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in Austria must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card or mobile phone verification.

Most countries in the world have a legal smoking age of 18. Five exceptions are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, and the Netherlands, where the age is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population,[30] has a legal age of 18. Another curiosity is Japan, one of the highest tobacco-consuming nations, which requires purchasers to be 20 years of age (suffrage in Japan is 20 years old).[31]. Beginning in July 2008, Japan will enforce this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age. Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on the 1 September 2007.

Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine.[32] Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by Trading Standards Officers in the UK and the Gardaí Siochana, the police force of the Republic of Ireland.[33]

Consumption

Approximately 5.5 trillion cigarettes are produced globally each year and are smoked by over 1.1 billion people or greater than one-sixth of the world population. While smoking rates have leveled off or declined in developed nations, they continue to rise in developing parts of the world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006 falling from 42% to 20.8% of adults.[6] In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[7]

Smoking prevalence by gender
Percent smoking
Region Men Women
Africa 29 4
United States 35 22
Eastern Mediterranean 35 4
Europe 46 26
Southeast Asia 44 4
Western Pacific 60 8

Source: World Health Organization estimates, 2000

Leading consumers of cigarettes in 1998[34]
Country Population
(millions)		 Cigarettes consumed
(billions)		 Cigarettes consumed
(per capita)
China 1248 1643 1320
USA 270 451 1670
Japan 126 328 2600
Russia 146 258 1760
Indonesia 200 215 1070
Smoking prevalence in the U.S. (2006)[35]
Rank State % Rank State % Rank State % Rank State %
1 KY 28.6 14 SC 22.3 27 KS 20.0 40 AZ 18.1
2 WV 25.7 15 NV 22.2 28 GA 20.0 41 VT 18.0
3 OK 25.1 16 NC 22.1 29 ND 19.6 42 DC 17.9
4 MS 25.1 17 DE 21.7 30 VA 19.3 43 CO 17.9
5 AK 24.2 18 WY 21.6 31 RI 19.3 44 MA 17.8
6 IN 24.1 19 PA 21.5 32 MT 19.0 45 MD 17.8
7 AR 23.7 20 IA 21.5 33 NH 18.7 46 HI 17.5
8 LA 23.4 21 FL 21.0 34 NE 18.6 47 WA 17.1
9 MO 23.3 22 ME 20.9 35 OR 18.5 48 CT 17.0
10 AL 23.3 23 WI 20.8 36 NY 18.3 49 ID 16.8
11 TN 22.6 24 IL 20.5 37 MN 18.3 50 CA 14.9
12 OH 22.5 25 SD 20.4 38 TX 18.1 51 UT 9.8
13 MI 22.4 26 NM 20.2 39 NJ 18.1

Graphics on cigarette packets

Main article: Tobacco packaging warning messages
File:Cigarettes health warning australia.jpg
Cigarette packs in Australia with graphic health warnings

Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health. The United States was one of the first. Other countries include most of Europe, Australia and in Asia (e.g. Hong Kong)

Smoking bans

Many governments impose restrictions on smoking tobacco, especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of secondhand smoke.[36] Laws vary by country and locality. See:

Cigarette butt

See also: Cigarette filter
Cigarette butts in an ashtray.

The common name the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a "cigarette butt" or simply "butt." It comprises about 30% of the cigarette's original length. The butt consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. In extreme cases the filter is slightly burned. Cigarette butts are one source of tobacco for minors and low income people. The shape of a butt hinges on the manner of stubbing out. The intensely pressed butt possesses irregular shape at the end and wrinkled tissue. Cigarette butts may be a subject of studies over popularity of brands producing cigarettes.

Cigarette litter

A cigarette disposal canister, encouraging the public to dispose of their cigarettes properly.

Cigarette filters are made from cellulose acetate and is biodegradable, however depending on environmental conditions it can be resistant to degradation. Accordingly, the duration of the degradation process is cited as taking as little as 1 month to 3 years[37] to as long as 10-15 years[38].

This variance in rate and resistance to biodegradation in many conditions is a factor in littering[39] and environmental damage[40]. It is estimated that 4.5 trillion cigarette butts become litter every year.[38] In the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup, cigarettes and cigarette butts constituted 24.7% of the total collected garbage, over twice as much as any other category.[41]

Cigarette butts contain the chemicals filtered from cigarettes and can leach into waterways and water supplies.[42]

Cellulose acetate and carbon particles breathed in from cigarette filters is suspected of causing lung damage[43][44].

Cigarette advertising

Main article: Tobacco advertising

In many parts of the world tobacco advertising and even sponsorship of sporting events has been outlawed. The ban on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the EU in 2005 has prompted Formula One Management to look for races in areas that allow the tobacco sponsored teams to display their livery. As of 2007, only the Scuderia Ferrari retains tobacco sponsorship, continuing their relationship with Marlboro until 2011.

In some jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, Canada and Alberta, Canada, the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises [45]

References

  1. ^ a b c d http://www.jeffreywigand.com/WHOFinal.pdf Wigand, MA. ADDITIVES, CIGARETTE DESIGN and TOBACCO PRODUCT REGULATION, A REPORT TO: WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, TOBACCO FREE INITIATIVE, TOBACCO PRODUCT REGULATION GROUP, KOBE, JAPAN, 28 JUNE-2 JULY 2006
  2. ^ [1]
  3. ^ "Smoking While Pregnant Causes Finger, Toe Deformities". Science Daily. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ List of health effects by CDC
  5. ^ [2]
  6. ^ a b Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006
  7. ^ a b WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics
  8. ^ http://www.lexpansion.com/economie/actualite-high-tech/les-cigarettes-anti-incendie-seront-obligatoires-en-2011_160019.html According to a study made by european union in 16 european countries, 11000 fires were due to cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. They caused 520 deaths and 1600 people injured. See also http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3540489,00.html in English
  9. ^ Robicsek, Francis Smoke; Ritual Smoking in Central America pp. 30-37
  10. ^ The Crimea
  11. ^ Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey - Hammond et al. 15 (Supplement 3): iii19 - Tobacco Control
  12. ^ Clean Virginia Waterways, Cigarette Butt Litter - Cigarette Filters, Longwood University, Retrieved October 31 2006
  13. ^ Philip Morris USA, Product Information -Cigarette ingredients, Retrieved March 5 2007
  14. ^ JTI, ""Composite List of Ingredients in Non-Tobacco Materials"". www.jti.com, Retrieved November 2 2006
  15. ^ published in 2004 Australian medical journal see at http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3540489,00.html
  16. ^ "" Smoking article wrapper for controlling burn rate and method for making same"".
  17. ^ a b ""What is a fire-safe cigarette?"".
  18. ^ ""Method and apparatus for making banded smoking article wrappers"".
  19. ^ http://www.lexpansion.com/economie/actualite-high-tech/les-cigarettes-anti-incendie-seront-obligatoires-en-2011_160019.html
  20. ^ a b c d e David E. Merrill, (1994), "How cigarettes are made". Video presentation at Philip Morris USA, Richmond offices. Retrieved October 31 2006
  21. ^ ""PCL Sheet Tobacco Cigarettes""., Retrieved November 2 2006
  22. ^ Grant Gellatly, "" Method and apparatus for coating reconstituted tobacco""., Retrieved November 2 2006
  23. ^ http://uk.geocities.com/synergy.editorial@btinternet.com/polonium210radiationpoisoning.htm
  24. ^ STS
  25. ^ U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia
  26. ^ STATE EXCISE TAX RATES ON CIGARETTES (January 1, 2007)
  27. ^ Higher Cigarett Taxes.
  28. ^ News 10 Now (19 December 2006), "Lawmakers raise minimum age on purchasing tobacco products". Retrieved December 19 2006
  29. ^ Massachusetts General Laws, Chapter 270 (Crimes Against Public Health), Section 6 (Tobacco; sale or gift to minors) [3]
  30. ^ "Total adult smokers by country". NationMaster.com. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |access date= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Japan
  32. ^ http://www.abc.state.va.us/licensing/downloads/underagebuyer.pdf
  33. ^ BBC News, "Retailers sell tobacco to youths", September 2005. Retrieved 9 November 2006.
  34. ^ Cigarette numbers from WHO[4], population from: China: China Population Information and Research Center (estimate?)[5], USA: US Census estimate[6], Japan: National Statistics Center intercensal estimate[7], Russia: Population Reference Bureau[8], Indonesia: average of 1995 and 2000 figures from Statistics Indonesia[9], all accessed on 2 August 2008. Per capita consumption given to 3 significant figures.
  35. ^ Source: Center for Disease Control: State-Specific Prevalence of Cigarette Smoking Among Adults and Quitting Among Persons Aged 18-35 Years — United States, 2006, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, September 28, 2007, 56(38); 993-996, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  36. ^ WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control; First international treaty on public health, adopted by 192 countries and signed by 168. Its Article 8.1 states "Parties recognize that scientific evidence has unequivocally established that exposure to tobacco causes death, disease and disability."
  37. ^ http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/4572237B0C2D456CC1257314004EF667 British American Tobacco Cigarette Design
  38. ^ a b http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/lifestyle/chi-cigarette-butts-numbers-0618jun18,0,2241103.story How the butts stack up
  39. ^ http://www.ceredigion.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5364 Ceredigion County Council
  40. ^ http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/ciglitterarticle.htm Bulletin of the American Littoral Society, Volume 25, Number 2, August 2000
  41. ^ http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/Final_ICC_report_2007_release.pdf?docID=2841 International Coastal Cleanup 2006 Report, page 8
  42. ^ "CigaretteLitter.org". CigaretteLitter.org. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
  43. ^ http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2027.html New Scientist
  44. ^ http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/11/suppl_1/i51/T1 Tobacco Control, British Medical Journal Publishing
  45. ^ "Banning the butt: Global anti-smoking efforts". CBC News. 2008-02-07. Retrieved 2008-05-23. On Jan. 19, 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada rules the province [Saskatchewan] could reinstate the "shower curtain law" that requires store owners to keep tobacco products out of sight.
  • Bogden JD, Kemp FW, Buse M, Thind IS, Louria DB, Forgacs J, Llanos G, Moncoya Terrones I. (1981) Composition of tobaccos from countries with high and low incidences of lung cancer. I. Selenium, polonium-210, Alternaria, tar, and nicotine. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 66: 27-31.
  • Hecht SS (1999) Tobacco Smoke Carcinogens and Lung Cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute
  • Smoke: A Global History of Smoking (2004) edited by Sander L. Gilman and Zhou Xun ISBN 1-86189-200-4

See also

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