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Also known as pee
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Leffe 900px.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leffe]], a [[Belgian beer]], served in branded glasses]]
[[Image:GravityTap.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Schlenkerla]] [[Rauchbier]] straight from the [[cask]]]]


'''Beer''' is the oldest<ref>{{cite book|title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology|first=John P|last=Arnold|ISBN=0966208412}}</ref> and most widely consumed<ref>{{cite web| title=Volume of World Beer Production | work=European Beer Guide | url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production | accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref> [[alcoholic beverage]] and the third most popular drink overall after [[water]] and [[tea]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/reader/0415311217?p=S00H&checkSum=ha%2FMenougrV%2FCPWZg6P4td6OJoeMeVfRptT8FuSLUrk%3D|title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe}}</ref> It is produced by the [[brewing]] and [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]] of [[starch]]es, mainly derived from [[cereal]]s—the most common of which is [[malt]]ed [[barley]], although [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], and [[rice]] are also widely used. Most beer is flavoured with [[hops]], which add bitterness and act as a natural [[preservative]], though other flavourings such as [[herbs]] or [[fruit]] may occasionally be included. Alcoholic beverages fermented from non-starch sources such as grape juice ([[wine]]) or honey ([[mead]]) or distilled after fermentation are not classified as beer.

Some of mankind's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the [[Code of Hammurabi]] included laws regulating beer and beer parlours,<ref>{{cite web|title=Beer Before Bread | work=Alaska Science Forum #1039, Carla Helfferich | url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html | accessdate=2008-05-13}}</ref> and "The Hymn to [[Ninkasi]]", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.<ref name="Nin-kasi">{{cite web| title=Nin-kasi: Mesopotamian Goddess of Beer | work=Matrifocus 2006, Johanna Stuckey | url=http://www.matrifocus.com/SAM06/spotlight.htm | accessdate=2008-05-13}}</ref><ref name="sumer">{{Cite book | author=Black, Jeremy A.; Cunningham, Graham; Robson, Eleanor | authorlink= | coauthors= | title=The literature of ancient Sumer | year=2004 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=0-19-926311-6 | pages=}}</ref> Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]] and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].

The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries and are commonly categorised into two main types—the globally popular [[pale lager]]s and the regionally distinct [[ale]]s which are further categorised into other [[Ale#Varieties of ale|varieties]] such as [[pale ale]], [[stout]] and [[brown ale]]. The strength of beer may range from less than 1% [[abv]] (alcohol by volume) to over 20% abv in rare cases, though is usually around 4% to 6% abv.

Beer forms part of the culture of various beer-drinking nations and has acquired various social traditions and associations, such as [[beer festivals]] and a rich [[Public house|pub culture]] involving activities such as [[pub crawl]]ing or [[pub games]] such as [[bar billiards]].

==History==
{{main|History of beer}}
[[Image:EMS-89615-Rosecrucian-Egyptian-BeerMaking.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt, [[Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum]], [[San Jose, California]]]]
Beer is one of the world's oldest beverages, possibly dating back to the 6th millennium BC, and is recorded in the written history of [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-66615/beer|title=Beer|publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> The earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer. A prayer to the goddess [[Ninkasi]] known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi" serves as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.<ref name="Nin-kasi"/><ref name="sumer"/>

As almost any substance containing [[carbohydrates]], mainly [[sugar]] or [[starch]], can naturally undergo fermentation, it is likely that beer-like beverages were independently invented among various cultures throughout the world. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=E699E9C7-E7F2-99DF-38A7329520CF67D6&colID=15|
journal=[[Scientific American]]|month=May | year=2007|title=Ale's Well with the World|first=Steve|last=Mirsky|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Horst|last=Dornbusch|url=http://www.aina.org/ata/20060827151956.htm|title=Beer: The Midwife of Civilization|publisher=Assyrian International News Agency|date=2006-08-27|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beer-pages.com/stories/complete-guide-beer.htm|first=Roger|last=Protz|authorlink=Roger Protz|title=The Complete Guide to World Beer|year=2004|quote=When people of the ancient world realised they could make bread and beer from grain, they stopped roaming and settled down to cultivate cereals in recognisable communities.}}</ref> The earliest known chemical evidence of beer dates to circa 3500&ndash;3100 BC from the site of [[Godin Tepe]] in the [[Zagros Mountains]] of western [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/masca/beer.shtml|title=Earliest Known Chemical Evidence of Beer |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]]|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref>

Beer was spread through Europe by [[Germanic]] and [[Celtic]] tribes as far back as 3000 BC,<ref>[http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/000123.html] ''Prehistoric brewing: the true story'', 22 October 2001, Archaeo News. Retrieved 13 September 2008</ref> though it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.<ref>[http://www.dreherrt.hu/portal/main.php?heading_id=27&article_id=&language=en] Dreher Breweries, ''Beer-history''</ref> The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. The early European beers might contain alongside the basic starch source: fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic drugs.<ref>Max Nelson, ''The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe'' pp2, Routledge (2005),
ISBN 0415311217</ref> What they did not contain was [[hops]], as that was a later addition—first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rMNf-p1mu6AC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=hops+Carolingian+Abbot&source=web&ots=hquU2pyyXK&sig=bymjH2aH8Xc9uzm0rJS4FZc8c2g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result Google Books] Richard W. Unger, ''Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance'' pp57, University of Pennsylvania Press ( 2004), ISBN 0812237951</ref> and again in 1067 by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&pg=PA110&dq=Abbess+Hildegard+of+Bingen+hops&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U15z21lcPS7K0HO2-Dp3Ju7zi8bgw Max Nelson], ''The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe'' pp110, Routledge (2005),
ISBN 0415311217</ref>

Beer produced before the [[Industrial Revolution]] continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European [[monasteries]]. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from [[artisan]]al manufacture to [[Manufacturing|industrial manufacture]], and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.<ref name="sotp">{{cite book|first=Martyn|last=Cornell|title=Beer: The Story of the Pint|year=2003|ISBN=0755311655|publisher=Headline}}</ref> The development of [[hydrometer]]s and [[thermometer]]s changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results.

Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]] and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].<ref name="market">{{cite web|url=http://biz.yahoo.com/p/bevalcmktd.html|title=Industry Browser - Consumer Non-Cyclical - Beverages (Alcoholic) - Company List|publisher=[[Yahoo!]] Finance|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> More than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons) are sold per year&mdash;producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion) in 2006.<ref name="researchandmarkets1">{{cite web|url=http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/53577/beer_global_industry_guide.htm|title=Beer: Global Industry Guide|publisher=Research and Markets|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref>

==Brewing==
{{Main|Brewing}}
The process of making beer is known as [[brewing]]. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a [[brewery]], though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of beer's history. A company which makes beer is called either a brewery or a [[brewing company]]. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is classed as [[homebrewing]] regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made in the home. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in [[developed countries]], which from the late 19th century, largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972, and the USA in 1979, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.homebrew4u.co.uk/news-articles/breaking-homebrewing-law-in-alabama.asp |title=Breaking the Home Brewing Law in Alabama |publisher=Homebrew4u.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref>
[[Image:16thCenturyBrewer.jpg|thumb|left|A 16th-century brewery—a contemporary engraving by J. Amman]]
The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called [[Wort (brewing)|wort]] which is then able to be fermented by [[Brewer's yeast|yeast]] into the [[alcoholic beverage]] known as beer.
{{Realale Brewing}}
The first step, where the wort is created by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as "[[mashing]]". Hot water (known as "liquor" in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as the "[[grain bill]]") in a [[mash tun]].<ref>[http://www.beer-pages.com/protz/features/protz-the-brewer.htm] [[Roger Protz]], ''Roger Protz tries his hand at brewing'', Beer-pages.com, June 2007</ref> The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours,<ref>[http://www.abgbrew.com/brewerslog.htm] Steve Parkes, ''British Brewing'', American Brewers Guild</ref> during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are now washed in a process known as "sparging" or "[[lautering]]". This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. Most modern breweries use a continuous wash. However, it is possible to go through a second or even third mash with the not quite spent grains. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer. This process is known as second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing.<ref>[http://brewingtechniques.com/library/backissues/issue2.2/mosher.html] Randy Mosher, ''Parti-Gyle Brewing'', Brewing Techniques, March/April 1994</ref>

The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or "copper", (so called because these vessels were traditionally made from [[copper]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/brewing.html |title=Copper Brewing Vessels |publisher=Msm.cam.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. [[Hops]] are added during boiling in order to extract bitterness, flavour and aroma from them. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but less of the hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cr9Pv0gefCQC&pg=PA274&dq=hops+boiled+brewing&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U20D5Blv8GqmsNXncZ7twjbH50Zxg#PPA275,M1] Michael Lewis, Tom W. Young, ''Brewing'', page 275, Springer (2002), ISBN 0306472740</ref>

After boiling, the hopped wort is now cooled, ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter; but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the [[brewers yeast|yeast]] is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing alcohol, fine [[Particulate|particulate matter]] suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear.<ref>[http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm beer-brewing.com] Ted Goldammer, ''The Brewers Handbook'', Chapter 13 - Beer Fermentation, Apex Pub (January 1, 2000), ISBN 0967521203. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref>

Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages, primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of [[secondary fermentation]]. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cr9Pv0gefCQC&pg=PA306&dq=secondary+fermentation+brewing&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U3T7G6RMyj_w9QtnLY9ZeANNuSshQ Google Books] Michael Lewis, Tom W. Young, ''Brewing'' pp306, Springer (2002), ISBN 0306472740. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> When the beer has fermented, it is [[#Packaged|packaged]] either into casks for [[cask ale]] or kegs or bottles for other sorts of beer.<ref>Harold M. Broderick, Alvin Babb, ''Beer Packaging: A Manual for the Brewing and Beverage Industries'', Master Brewers Association of the Americas (1982)</ref>

==Ingredients==
[[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|right|thumb|[[Malted]] [[barley]] before roasting]]
The basic ingredients of beer are [[water]]; a starch source, such as [[malt]]ed [[barley]], able to be fermented (converted into alcohol); a [[brewer's yeast]] to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as [[hops]].<ref>[http://www.alabev.com/ingredie.htm alabev.com] ''The Ingredients of Beer''. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary starch source, such as [[maize|corn]], rice or sugar, often being termed an [[adjunct (beer)|adjunct]], especially when used as a lower-cost substitute for malted barley.<ref>[http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm beer-brewing.com] Ted Goldammer, ''The Brewers Handbook'', Chapter 6 - Beer Adjuncts, Apex Pub (January 1, 2000), ISBN 0967521203. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> Less widely used starch sources include [[millet]], [[sorghum]] and [[cassava]] root in Africa, [[potato]] in Brazil, and [[agave]] in Mexico, among others.<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000120.html BeerHunter.com] Michael Jackson, ''A good beer is a thorny problem down Mexico way'', What's Brewing, 1 Oct, 1997. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref>

===Water===
Beer is composed mostly of [[water]]. Different regions have water with different mineral components; as a result, different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer, thus giving them a regional character.<ref name="geot"/> For example, [[Dublin]] has [[hard water]] well suited to making [[stout]], such as [[Guinness]]; while [[Pilzen]] has soft water well suited to making [[pale lager]], such as [[Pilsner Urquell]].<ref name="geot">{{cite news|url=http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/aug04/resources.html|title=Geology and Beer|work=Geotimes|date=2004-08|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> The waters of [[Beer in England#Burton upon Trent|Burton]] in England contain [[gypsum]], which benefits making [[pale ale]] to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as [[Burtonisation]].<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000098.html] Michael Jackson, BeerHunter, 19 October, 1991, ''Brewing a good glass of water''. Retrieved 13 September 2008</ref>

===Starch source===
{{main|Malt|Mash ingredients}}
The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted [[grain]]. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin [[germination]], and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars.<ref>[[s:en:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brewing/Chemistry|Wikisource]] 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brewing/Chemistry. retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers.<ref>[http://www.farm-direct.co.uk/farming/stockcrop/barley/malt.html Farm-direct] Oz, ''Barley Malt'', 6 Feb 2002. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref>

Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because of its fibrous husk, which is not only important in the sparging stage of brewing (in which water is washed over the [[Mashing|mashed]] barley grains to form the [[Wort (brewing)|wort]]), but also as a rich source of [[amylase]], a [[digestion|digestive]] [[enzyme]] which facilitates conversion of starch into sugars. Other malted and unmalted grains (including [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oat]]s, and [[rye]], and less frequently, corn and [[sorghum]]) may be used. In recent years, a few brewers have produced [[gluten-free beer]] made with sorghum with no barley malt for those who cannot consume [[gluten]]-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.<ref>
{{cite web
| first=Carolyn|last=Smagalski
| year = 2006
| url = http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art39558.asp
| title = CAMRA & The First International Gluten Free Beer Festival
| publisher = Carolyn Smagalski, Bella Online
}}
</ref>

===Hops===
{{main|Hops}}
Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops.<ref>A. H. Burgess, ''Hops: Botany, Cultivation and Utilization'', Leonard Hill (1964), ISBN 0471123501</ref> The flower of the [[Hop (plant)|hop vine]] is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops".
[[Image:Hopfendolde-mit-hopfengarten.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hop|Hop cone]] in a [[Hallertau]], [[Germany]], hop yard]]
The use of hops in beer was recorded by captive Jews in Babylon<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coopsmaps.com/beer/hops.html|title=A Short History of Hops|publisher=Coop's Maps|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> around 400 BC. Hops were used by monastery breweries, such as Corvey in Westphalia, Germany, from 822 AD,<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p62 --><ref name="bmar">{{cite book|first=Richard W|last=Unger|title=Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|pages=54–55|isbn=0812237951}}</ref> though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century.<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p63 --><ref name="bmar"/> Before the thirteenth century, and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants; for instance, ''[[Glechoma hederacea#Cultivation and uses|Glechoma hederacea]]''. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like [[Absinth Wormwood|wormwood]] would be combined into a mixture known as [[gruit]] and used as hops are now used.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rMNf-p1mu6AC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=gruit+beer&source=web&ots=hquT_nFAXM&sig=6dIe2vRBBHt-6wKhNfNis4FuGgk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result] Richard W. Unger, ''Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance'', University of Pennsylvania Press (2004), ISBN 0812237951. Retrieved 14 September 2008.</ref> Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fraoch.com/historicales.htm |title=Heatherale.co.uk |publisher=Fraoch.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brasserie-lancelot.com/brasserie-lancelot.php |title=La Brasserie Lancelot est située au coeur de la Bretagne, dans des bâtiments rénovés de l'ancienne mine d'Or du Roc St-André, construits au 19 ème siècle sur des vestiges néolithiques |publisher=Brasserie-lancelot.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> use plants other than hops for flavouring.

[[Hops]] contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a [[bitter (taste)|bitterness]] that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. Hops also contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer. Hops have an [[antibiotic]] effect that favours the activity of [[brewer's yeast]] over less desirable microorganisms, and the use of hops aids in "[[Head (beer)|head]] retention",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brewwiki.com/index.php/Head_Retention|title=Head Retention|publisher=BrewWiki|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hopsteiner.com/isopg1.htm|title=Hop Products: Iso-Extract|publisher=Hopsteiner|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops acts as a preservative.<ref>[http://beer.pdqguides.com/beer-ingredient-hops.html] PDQ Guides, ''Hops: Clever Use For a Useless Plan''. retrieved 13 September 2008</ref><ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17772625], ''A better control of beer properties by predicting acidity of hop iso-α-acids'', Blanco Carlos A.; Rojas Antonio; Caballero Pedro A.; Ronda Felicidad; Gomez Manuel; Caballero. retrieved 13 September 2008</ref>

===Yeast===
{{main|Brewer's yeast|Saccharomyces cerevisiae|Saccharomyces uvarum}}
Yeast is the [[microorganism]] that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast [[metabolism|metabolises]] the sugars extracted from grains, which produces [[Ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]], and thereby turns [[wort (brewing)|wort]] into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.<ref> Ostergaard, S., Olsson, L., Nielsen, J., [http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/64/1/34 Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae], Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000 64: 34-50</ref>
The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are ale yeast (''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') and lager yeast (''[[Saccharomyces uvarum]]''); their use distinguishes [[ale]] and [[Pale lager|lager]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0kefSj0_i9sC&pg=PA376&dq=types+of+yeast+used+to+make+beer&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U3MoveTthnLMs94MsIoa2B8EU-lAQ Google Books] Paul R. Dittmer, J. Desmond, ''Principles of Food, Beverage, and Labor Cost Controls'', John Wiley and Sons (2005),
ISBN 0471429929</ref> ''[[Brettanomyces]]'' ferments [[lambic]]s,<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DvNhR0xfHtMC&pg=PA221&dq=Brettanomyces+lambic&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U3PmukrkBNIO7fkkHMIit43n9l7Bg Google Books] Ian Spencer Hornsey, ''Brewing'' pp221-222, Royal Society of Chemistry (1999),
ISBN 0854045686</ref> and ''[[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]'' ferments Bavarian [[weissbier]].<ref>[http://web.mst.edu/~microbio/BIO221_2001/torulospora_delbrueckii.htm Web.mst.edu] David Horwitz, ''Torulaspora delbrueckii''. Retrieved 30 Sept 2008</ref>
Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles such as [[lambics]] rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast [[Microbiological culture|cultures]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TxCQlmasQh8C&pg=PA847&dq=beer+yeast+history&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U3I5rdHZa4dvHSF6rH3E5mt9ddqbg#PPA847,M1 Google Books] Y. H. Hui, George G. Khachatourians, ''Food Biotechnology'' pp847-848, Wiley-IEEE (1994),
ISBN 0471185701</ref>

===Clarifying agent===
{{Main|Finings}}
Some brewers add one or more [[clarity|clarifying]] agents to beer, which typically [[precipitate]] (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear [[Bright beer|bright]] and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as [[wheat beer]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000717.html |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter - A pint of cloudy, please |publisher=Beerhunter.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref>

Common examples of clarifying agents include [[isinglass]], obtained from [[swimbladder]]s of fish; [[Chondrus crispus|Irish moss]], a seaweed; kappa [[carrageenan]], from the seaweed ''[[Kappaphycus cottonii]]''; [[Polyclar]] (artificial); and [[gelatin]].<ref>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1178630797698.htm EFSA] ''Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies'', 23/08/2007. retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> If a beer is marked "suitable for Vegans", then it has been clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents.<ref>[http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/consultationresponse/summrespvegi.pdf Food.gov.uk] ''Draft Guidance on the Use of the Terms ‘Vegetarian’ and ‘Vegan’ in Food
Labelling: Consultation Responses'' pp71, 5 October 2005. retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref>

==Varieties of beer==
{{main|Beer style}}
[[Image:800px-Kriek Beer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kriek]], a variety of beer brewed with cherries]]
While there are many different types of beer brewed around the globe, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4906858.stm] Will Smale, BBC, 20 April 2006, ''Is today's beer all image over reality?''. Retrieved 12 September 2008</ref> The traditional European brewing regions&mdash;[[German beer|Germany]], [[Belgian beer|Belgium]], the [[British beer|United Kingdom]], [[Irish beer|Ireland]], [[Polish beer|Poland]], the [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]], [[Danish beer|Denmark]], [[Beer in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]] and [[Austrian beer|Austria]]&mdash;have local varieties of beer. In some countries, notably the [[Beer in the United States|USA]], [[Canadian beer|Canada]] and [[Beer in Australia|Australia]], brewers have adapted European styles to such an extent that they have effectively created their own indigenous types.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beertown.org/education/amber.html |title=Beer Information/Education Amber Ale |publisher=Beertown.org |accessdate=2008-09-30}}</ref> Despite the regional variations, beer is commonly categorised into two main types—the globally popular [[pale lager]]s and the more regionally distinct [[ales]], which are further categorised into other [[Ale#Varieties of ale|varieties]] such as [[pale ale]], [[stout]] and [[brown ale]].

The late British beer writer [[Michael Jackson (writer)|Michael Jackson]], in his 1977 book ''The World Guide To Beer'', categorised a variety of beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names.<ref name="Jackson">{{cite web|url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000233.html |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter - How to save a beer style |publisher=Beerhunter.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> [[Fred Eckhardt]] furthered Jackson's work in ''The Essentials of Beer Style'' in 1989.

The most common method of categorising beer is by the behaviour of the yeast used in the fermentation process. In this method of categorising, beers using a fast-acting yeast which leaves behind residual sugars are termed "ales", while beers using a slower-acting yeast, fermented at lower temperatures, which removes most of the sugars, leaving a clean, dry beer, are termed "lagers". Differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorise. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]], [[Altbier|Alt]], and some modern British Golden Summer Beers use elements of both lager and ale production. [[Baltic porter|Baltic Porter]] and [[Bière de Garde]] may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager production results in a cleaner-tasting, drier and lighter beer than ale.<ref>[http://www.beertutor.com/articles/ales_vs_lagers.shtml BeerTutor] ''The Difference Between Ales and Lagers''. retrieved 11 Oct 2008</ref>

===Ale===
{{main|Ale}}

A modern [[ale]] is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature. Ales are normally brewed with [[top-fermenting yeast]]s (most commonly ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''), though a number of British brewers, including [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-421.htm |title=Who is King in Horsham? |publisher=Ratebeer.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> use ale yeast strains that have less-pronounced top-fermentation characteristics. The important distinction for ales is that they are fermented at higher temperatures and thus ferment more quickly than lagers.
[[Image:HandPumps.jpg|thumb|left|Cask ale [[Beer engine|hand pumps]] with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries]]
Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24[[Celsius|°C]] (60 and 75[[fahrenheit|°F]]). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of [[ester]]s and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, or prune, among others.<ref>[http://www.google.co.uk/books?id=allg4XxlOM4C&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=beer+fruity+esters&sig=ACfU3U3y2dmIwcGJCI9sZPpXzWfNHax3Vg Google Books] Lalli Nykänen, Heikki Suomalainen, ''Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages'' pp 13, Springer (1983), ISBN 902771553X</ref> Typically ales have a sweeter, fuller [[mouthfeel|body]] than lagers.

Before the introduction of [[hop (plant)|hops]] into [[England]] from the [[Netherlands]] in the 15th century, the name ''ale'' was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages, the term ''beer'' being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. This distinction no longer applies.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=term+ale+-+unhopped+beer&source=web&ots=7eZH_pGNRd&sig=VT_3jQ8PaSpw_1dCfWvM1Y04hwE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result Google books] F. G. Priest, Graham G. Stewart, ''Handbook of Brewing'' pp2, CRC Press (2006), ISBN 082472657X</ref> The word ''ale'' may come from the [[Old English]] ''ealu'', in turn from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] base ''*alut-'', which holds connotations of "sorcery, magic, possession, intoxication". <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ale |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref>

[[Real ale]] is the term coined by the [[Campaign for Real Ale]] (CAMRA) in 1973<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/wine/main.jhtml?xml=/wine/2000/11/09/edneil09.xml |title=Still bitter after all these years - Telegraph |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref> for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by [[secondary fermentation]] in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of [[carbonation|extraneous carbon dioxide]]". It is applied both to [[bottle conditioned]] and [[cask conditioned]] beers.

[[Lambic]], a beer of [[Belgian beers|Belgium]], is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]'' and ''[[Brettanomyces lambicus]]'' are quite common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as [[Lactobacillus]] bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness.<ref>Webb, Tim; Pollard, Chris; and Pattyn, Joris; ''Lambicland: Lambikland'', Rev Ed. (Cogan and Mater Ltd, 2004), ISBN 0954778901</ref>
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===Lager===
{{main|Lager}}

[[Lager]] is the English name for cool fermenting beers of [[Central Europe]]an origin. [[Pale lager]]s are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. The name ''lager'' comes from the [[German language|German]] ''lagern'' for "to store", as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions.<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000255.html] Michael Jackson, BeerHunter, ''The birth of lager'', 1 March, 1996. Retrieved 16 September 2008</ref>

Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (''[[Saccharomyces pastorianus]]'') and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7&ndash;12°C (45&ndash;55°F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0&ndash;4°C (32&ndash;40°F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of [[ester]]s and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-09/cshl-bbb090308.php] Gavin Sherlock, Ph.D., EurekAlert, ''Brewing better beer: Scientists determine the genomic origins of lager yeasts'', 10 September 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2008</ref>

Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by [[Gabriel Sedlmayr]] the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the [[Spaten Brewery]] in [[Bavaria]], and [[Anton Dreher]], who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red colour, in [[Vienna]] in 1840&ndash;1841. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1&ndash;3 weeks.
{{clear}}

===Colour===

The colour of a beer is determined by the malt.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5PVTAAAAMAAJ&q=The+color+of+beer+is+first+of+all+determined+by+the+malt+type.&dq=The+color+of+beer+is+first+of+all+determined+by+the+malt+type.&client=firefox-a&pgis=1 Google Books] Fritz Ullmann, ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' Vol A-11 pp455, VCH (1985), ISBN 3527201033</ref> The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. ''[[Pale lager]]'' and ''[[pale ale]]'' are terms used for beers made from [[malt]] dried with [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term ''pale ale'' was first used.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-579.htm British Bitter] ''A beer style or a way of life?'', RateBeer (January 2006). Retrieved 30 September 2008</ref><ref>Martyn Cornell, ''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Headline (2004), ISBN 0755311655</ref>
[[Image:Paulaner.jpg‎|thumb|upright|Paulaner [[dunkel]] - a dark lager]]
In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of [[Pilsen]] in the [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]].<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000262.html BeerHunter] Michael Jackson, ''A Czech-style classic from Belgium'', Beer Hunter Online (7 Sept 1999). Retrieved 20 Sept 2008</ref> The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation (fizzy bubbles) and a typical [[alcohol by volume]] content of around 5%. The [[Pilsner Urquell]], [[Bitburger]], and [[Heineken Pilsener|Heineken]] brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]], [[Coors Brewing Company|Coors]], and [[Miller Brewing Company|Miller]].

Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants&mdash;such as caramel&mdash;are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as [[stout]], use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. [[Guinness]] and similar beers include roasted unmalted [[barley]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gtKOyU9ci1MC&pg=PA320&dq=roasted+malts+color+beer&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U2RMwZBZ6rKkRnpNm-b9zevMVTffg Google Books] Costas Katsigris, Chris Thomas, ''The Bar and Beverage Book'' pp320, John Wiley and Sons (2006), ISBN 0471647993</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDpi_6VnhegC&pg=PA228&dq=roasted+malts+color+beer&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U1-949VOcJUnOwWvO82sgOZ4_dQ5w Google Books] J. Scott Smith, Y. H. Hui, ''Food Processing: Principles and Applications'' pp228, Blackwell Publishing (2004),
ISBN 0813819423</ref>

===Alcoholic strength===
Beer ranges from less than 3% [[alcohol by volume]] (abv) to almost 30% abv. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice<ref>{{Citation
| last =Pattinson
| first =Ron
| date =2007 6 July
| title =European Beer Statistics: Beer production by strength
| publisher =European Beer Guide
| url =http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#gravity
| accessdate =2007 23 December
}}.</ref> or beer style. The [[pale lager]]s that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4&ndash;6%, with a typical abv of 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bendbrewfest.com/index.php?page=glossary |title=Fourth Annual Bend Brew Fest |publisher=Bendbrewfest.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many [[Drinking culture#Session drinking|session beers]] being around 4% abv.<ref>{{Citation
| date =2004 6 January
| title =Beer Facts 2003
| publisher =The Brewers of Europe
| url =http://www.brewersofeurope.org/docs/publications/beerfacts2003.pdf
| accessdate =2007 23 December
}}.</ref> Some beers, such as [[Belgian beer#Table beer|table beer]] are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of [[soft drink]]s in some schools.<ref>{{Citation
| last =Osborn
| first =Andrew
| date =2001 21 June
| title =School dinner? Mine's a lager, please
| publisher =Guardian Unlimited
| url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,510202,00.html
| accessdate =2007 23 December
}}.</ref>

The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a byproduct of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content.

====Exceptionally strong beers====
The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% abv (33 [[Plato scale|degrees Plato]], hence Vetter "33"), [[Bock#Doppelbock|doppelbock]], was listed in the 1994 ''[[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]]'' as the strongest beer at that time,<ref>{{Citation
| title =Vetter Brauhaus
| publisher =Vetter Brauhaus
| url =http://www.brauhaus-vetter.de/
| accessdate =2008 22 January
}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation
| title =In 1994, the 33 Plato gave it the world's highest gravity. Though the beer can no longer make this claim, it is still one of the world's most renowned strong lagers
| publisher =Rate Beer
| url =http://www.ratebeer.com/Ratings/Beer/Beer-Ratings.asp?BeerID=13030
| accessdate = 2008-02-14
}}</ref> though [[Samichlaus]], by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the ''Guinness Book of World Records'' as the strongest at 14% abv.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schloss-eggenberg.at/site/en_srt_samichlaus.asp?id=87 |title=Schloss Eggenberg |publisher=Schloss-eggenberg.at |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000100.html |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter - Mine's a pint of Santa Claus |publisher=Beerhunter.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hurlimann-samichlaus/2399/ |title=Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen), a Doppelbock style beer: An unofficial page for Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen) in Zürich, , Switzerland |publisher=Ratebeer.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref>

Since then, some brewers have used [[Champagne (wine)|champagne]] yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. [[Samuel Adams (beer)|Samuel Adams]] reached 20% abv with Millennium<ref>{{Citation
| date=2002 13 February
| title=The 48 proof beer
| periodical=Beer Break
| publisher=Realbeer
| volume=2
| issue=19
| url=http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20020214.php
| accessdate=2007 23 December
}}.</ref> and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with [[Utopias (beer)|Utopias]]. The strongest beer sold in Britain was Delaware's [[Dogfish Head Brewery|Dogfish Head]]'s World Wide Stout, a 21% abv [[stout]] which was available from UK [[Safeway (UK)|Safeways]] in 2003.<ref>{{Citation
| last =Henegan
| first =Nick
| date =2003 6 August
| title =World's Strongest Beer .. at £10 a Pint
| publisher =Sunday Mirror
| url =http://www.sundaymirror.co.uk/news/page.cfm?method=full&objectid=13044414
| accessdate =2007 23 December
}}.</ref> In Japan in 2005, the Hakusekikan Beer Restaurant sold an [[Bock#Eisbock|eisbock]], strengthened through [[freeze distillation]], believed to be 28% abv.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hakusekikan-eisbock-28/53512/ Hakusekikan Eisbock 28%]</ref> The beer that is considered to be the strongest yet made is [[Hair of the Dog Brewing Company|Hair of the Dog]]'s Dave&mdash;a 29% abv [[barley wine]] made in 1994. The strength was achieved by freeze distilling a 10% ale twice.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer/hair-of-the-dog-dave/23897/ Hair of the Dog Dave (retired)]</ref>

===Related beverages===
{{see also|Category:Types of beer}}
Around the world, there are a number of traditional and ancient starch-based beverages classed as beer. In [[Africa]], there are various ethnic beers made from [[sorghum]] or [[millet]], such as [[Oshikundu]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2100/268/5/05Section3toBib.pdf |title=Recuperation |date= |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> in Namibia and [[Tella]] in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ethnomed.org/ethnomed/cultures/ethiop/ethiop_foods.html |title=EthnoMed: Traditional Foods of the Central Ethiopian Highlands |publisher=Ethnomed.org |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> [[Kyrgyzstan]] also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo".<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=j7MTx_zcIR0C&pg=PA101&lpg=PA101&dq=Kyrgyzstan+bozo&source=web&ots=jLpkkeNgfQ&sig=Wa6mnUffwxRu85mSHr-zZe3yGZ8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result] Glenn Randall Mack and Asele Surina, ''Food culture in Russia and Central Asia'', Greenwood Publishing Group, (2005), ISBN 0313327734</ref> [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]] and [[Sikkim]] also use millet in [[Chhaang]], a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern [[Himalaya]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trek2himalaya.com/nepal/research_culture_tourism.php |title=Research &amp; Culture, Kathmandu rich in Culture, Machchhendranath Temple, Akash Bhairav Temple, Hanumandhoka Durbar Square, Temple of Kumari Ghar, Jaishi Dewal, Martyr's Memorial (Sahid) Gate, Singha Durbar |publisher=Trek2himalaya.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> Further east in [[China]] are found [[Huangjiu]] and [[Choujiu]]—traditional rice-based beverages related to beer.

The [[Andes]] in [[South America]] has [[Chicha]], made from germinated [[maize|corn]]; while the [[indigenous peoples in Brazil]] have [[Cauim]], a traditional beverage made since pre-Columbian times by chewing [[manioc]] so that enzymes present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars;<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GPthV9MyccC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=Cauim+chewed&source=web&ots=GxROXeoASu&sig=8FN4t_HrDDVYqZ8_g3A2WJJVeQo&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result] Lewin Louis and Louis Levin, ''Phantastica: A Classic Survey on the Use and Abuse of Mind-Altering Plants'', Inner Traditions / Bear & Company (1998), ISBN 0892817836</ref> this is similar to Masato in [[Peru]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3tA0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=Masato+yuca&source=web&ots=Ey6hESuYWc&sig=ME1-Nu7KuaXGJ_lZ6frDvsl4Blk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result] ''The Anthropological Review'', By Anthropological Society of London
Published by Trübner, 1863</ref>

Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are [[Sahti]] in [[Finland]], [[Kvass]] in [[Russia]] and the [[Ukraine]], and [[Bouza]] in [[Sudan]].

==Brewing industry==
[[Image:Cropton Brewery,North Yorkshire.JPG|thumb|right|Cropton, a typical UK microbrewery]]
The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]] and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].<ref name="market">{{cite web|url=http://biz.yahoo.com/p/bevalcmktd.html|title=Industry Browser - Consumer Non-Cyclical - Beverages (Alcoholic) - Company List|publisher=[[Yahoo!]] Finance|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> More than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons) are sold per year&mdash;producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion) in 2006.<ref name="researchandmarkets1">{{cite web|url=http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/53577/beer_global_industry_guide.htm|title=Beer: Global Industry Guide|publisher=Research and Markets|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref>

A microbrewery, or craft brewery, is a modern [[brewery]] which produces a limited amount of beer.<ref>http://bbc.bloomington.com/terms/terms.html</ref> The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority, though is usually around 15,000 barrels (18,000 hectolitres/ 475,000 US gallons) a year.<ref>Microbrewery#Definition</ref> A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a [[public house|pub]] or other [[bar (establishment)|eating establishment]].

[[SABMiller]] became the largest brewing company in the world when it acquired Royal Grolsch, brewer of Dutch premium beer brand [[Grolsch]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/05/30/sab.miller/|title=Brewer to snap up Miller for $5.6B|work=[[CNN]]|date=2002-05-30|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref>
[[InBev]] is the second-largest beer-producing company in the world,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/12/business/worldbusiness/12beer.html?pagewanted=print&position=|title=A Beer Ban Fails, and Russians Hoist Bottles||first=Erin E|last=Arvedlund|work=[[New York Times]]|date=2004-11-12|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> and [[Anheuser-Busch]] holds the third spot, but after the proposed [[merger]] (announced 13 July 2008), between InBev and Anheuser-Busch, the new [[Anheuser-Busch InBev]] company will be the largest brewer in the world.<ref>[http://biz.yahoo.com/rb/080713/anheuser_inbev.html?.v=1 InBev agrees to buy Anheuser for $50 billion] - Reuters</ref><ref>[http://www.anheuserbusch.com/Press/PressImages/FINAL%20PRESS%20RELEASE.pdf AB/InBev Press Release]</ref>

==Serving==
===Draught===
{{main|Draught beer|Keg beer|Cask ale}}
[[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in [[Brussels]]]]
'''Draught beer''' from a pressurised [[keg]] is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing [[beer tap|tap]] or faucet. Some beers, notably [[stout]]s such as [[Guinness]] and "smooth" bitters such as [[Boddingtons]], may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. [[Nitrogen]] produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense [[Beer head|head]] and a creamy [[mouthfeel]]. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called [[beer ball]]s.

In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the [[Widget (beer)|beer widget]], a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a foamy head.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/question446.htm|title=How does the widget in a beer can work?|publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]]|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> The words ''draft'' and ''draught'' can be used as marketing terms to describe [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[beer bottle|bottle]]d beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised.

[[Image:Cask Ales.jpg|thumb|left|A selection of [[cask beer]]s]]
Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "[[Cask ale#Real ale|real ale]]" by the [[CAMRA]] organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a "[[stillage]]" which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 12-14°C/53-57°F),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/pdf/caskcellarcard.pdf |title=Cask Cellar Card - TimH |date= |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-09-28}}</ref> before being tapped and vented&mdash;a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard [[spile]] or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition&mdash;this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass.
{{clear}}

===Packaged===
{{main|Beer bottle|Beverage can}}
[[Image:ShinerCurrent.JPG|right|thumb|Bottles of beer from the [[Spoetzl Brewery]]]]
Most beers are cleared of yeast by [[filtered beer|filtering]] when packaged in bottles and cans.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-FviAgcmo90C&pg=PA59&dq=beer+classification+ale+lager&lr=&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U0GLvHLLvTVL_knmgkSWkPt3iz_eA#PPA58,M1 google books] Charles W. Bamforth, ''Beer: Tap Into the Art and Science of Brewing'' pp58-59, Oxford University Press US (2003), ISBN 0195154797. Retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> However, [[bottle conditioning|bottle conditioned]] beers retain some yeast&mdash;either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GG-60Vtl81EC&pg=PA370&dq=beer+bottle+conditioned&lr=&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U3zLu6ExkPefZvEj5NVqZxQFH3kcQ Google Books] T. Boekhout, Vincent Robert, ''Yeasts in Food: Beneficial and Detrimental Aspects'' pp370-371, Behr's Verlag DE (2003), ISBN 3860229613. retrieved 29 Sept 2008</ref> It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with [[wheat beer]]s. Typically, when serving a [[hefeweizen]], 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers.

Many beers are sold in [[beverage can]]s, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans.<ref>{{cite web | title = European Beer Statistics&mdash;beer sales by package type | publisher = European Beer Guide | url = http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#package | accessdate =2007-04-05}}</ref> People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. Cans protect the beer from light and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutbeer.com/features/packaging.html|title=Beer Packaging Secrets|publisher=All About Beer Magazine|accessdate=2007-11-05|quote=From a quality point of view, cans are much like bottles.}}</ref> Plastic ([[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]]) bottles are used by some breweries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.packaging-technology.com/projects/holsten/|title=Holsten-Brauerei Pet Line for Bottled Beer, Brunswick, Germany|publisher=Packaging-Gateway.com|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref>

=== Serving temperature ===
The [[temperature]] of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer; however, cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer [[pale lager]] to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength [[pale ale]] to be served cool, while a strong [[barley wine]] or [[imperial stout]] to be served at room temperature. <ref>[http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20000921.php RealBeer] ''Beyond the coldest beer in town'', 21 Sept 2000. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008</ref>
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - La Serveuse de Bocks (The Waitress), 1879.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Édouard Manet]]'s ''The Waitress'' showing a woman serving beer]]

Beer writer [[Michael Jackson (writer)|Michael Jackson]] proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C/45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C/47 °F) for [[Berliner Weisse]] and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C/48 °F) for all dark lagers, [[altbier]] and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C/55 °F) for regular British [[ale]], [[stout]] and most [[Belgian beer|Belgian specialities]]; and room temperature (15.5 °C/60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially [[trappist beer]]) and [[barley wine]].<ref>Michael Jackson, ''Michael Jackson's Beer Companion'', Courage Books; 2 edition (February 27, 2000), ISBN 0762407727</ref>

Drinking chilled beer is a social trend that began with the development of artificial [[refrigeration]] and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=history+of+lager+refrigeration&source=web&ots=zuaFlbk79s&sig=aMrrvuq_XFnoXl8VjnOHBVIJtbY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result Google Books] Jack S. Blocker, David M. Fahey, Ian R. Tyrrell, ''Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History'' pp95, ABC-CLIO (2003), ISBN 157607833</ref> Chilling below 15.5 °C/60 °F starts to reduce taste awareness<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BCLT3hH84GoC&pg=PA178&dq=temperature+on+taste&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U2_XkPWtYEM5WdFhbTqZSpmjbneYg Google Books] Howard Hillman, ''The New Kitchen Science'' pp178, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), ISBN 061824963X</ref> and reduces it significantly below 10 °C/50 °F;<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GepCDssW1FYC&pg=PA27&dq=taste+perception+temperature+below+50+F&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U0yTTlPFkc4qAycbMILslryvNUYww Google Books] Robert J. Harrington, ''Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience'' pp 27-28, John Wiley and Sons (2007), ISBN 0471794074</ref> while this is acceptable for beers without an appreciable aroma or taste profile, beers brewed with more than basic refreshment in mind reveal their flavours more when served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature.<ref>[http://ca.lifestyle.yahoo.com/food-entertaining/articles/drinks-desserts/cp/home_family-set_the_perfect_temperature_for_a_drink_and_enjoy_maximum_flavour Yahoo Lifestyle] Holly Ramer, ''Set the perfect temperature for a drink and enjoy maximum flavour'', The Associated press. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008.</ref> [[Cask Marque]], a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°-14°C (53°-57°F) for cask ales to be served.<ref>[http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/cmoffer/standards.php Cask Marque] Standards & Charters. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008</ref>

===Vessels===
{{main|Beer glassware}}
Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a [[beer stein]], a mug, a [[pewter]] [[tankard]], a [[beer bottle]] or a [[Beverage can|can]]. Some drinkers consider that the type of vessel influences their enjoyment of the beer. In Europe, particularly [[Belgian beer|Belgium]], breweries offer [[brand]]ed glassware intended only for their own beers.<ref>[http://belgianstyle.com/mmguide/glass/glass.html Belgian Style] ''Belgian Beer Glasses''. retrieved 11 Oct 2008</ref>

The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the [[beer tap|tap]] or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and [[turbulence]] of the beer and its release of [[carbonation]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xnLeJAPYzGkC&pg=PA211&dq=pouring+beer&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U2vCrDBPoQzAIFMN2gjtxKYYQZW3Q Google Books] Ray Foley, Heather Dismore, ''Running a Bar For Dummies'' pp 211-212, For Dummies (2007), ISBN 0470049197</ref>

==Beer and society==
===Social context===
[[Image:Oktoberfest2.jpg|thumb|right|Inside a tent at Munich's [[Oktoberfest]]—the world's largest beer festival]]
{{see also|Category:Beer culture}}
Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing [[Playing card|cards]], [[darts]], [[Cornhole (game)|bags]], or other [[pub games]]; attending [[beer festival]]s, or visiting a [[pub crawl|series of different pubs]] in one evening; joining an organisation such as [[CAMRA]]; or [[rating beer]].<ref>Leslie Dunkling & Michael Jackson, ''The Guinness Drinking Companion'', Lyons Press (2003), ISBN 158574617</ref> Various [[drinking games]], such as [[beer pong]], [[flip cup]] and [[quarters]] are also very popular.<ref>''Best Drinking Game Book Ever'', Carlton Books (October 28, 2002), ISBN 1858685605</ref>

===International consumption===
{{see also|Beers of the world|Beer consumption by country}}
Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQE/is_5_12/ai_76964204| title=Beer Boss | first=Michael | last=Sherer | work=Cheers | publisher=findarticles.com | date=2001–06 | accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon, Iraq and Syria as well as African countries (see [[African beer]]) and remote countries such as Mongolia. Sales of beer are four times that of wine, the second most popular alcoholic beverage.<ref>{{cite web | title=Beer Production Per Capita | work=European Beer Guide | url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#consumption | accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Natasha | last=Cazin | title=Global wine market shows solid growth | date=2004-07-20 | publisher=Euromonitor International | url=http://www.euromonitor.com/articles.aspx?folder=Global_wine_market_shows_solid_growth&industryfolder=Articles }}</ref> In most societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.

===Health effects===
{{alcohealth}}
The main active ingredient of beer is alcohol, and therefore, the health effects of alcohol apply to beer. The moderate consumption of alcohol, including beer, is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease, stroke and cognitive decline.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=15659724 Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=11207350&ordinalpos=17&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase and the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on myocardial infarction.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=10564684 Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and risk of stroke among U.S. male physicians.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=12519921 Roles of drinking pattern and type of alcohol consumed in coronary heart disease in men.]</ref> The [[long-term effects of alcohol]] abuse include the risk of developing [[alcoholism]], [[alcoholic liver disease]], and some forms of [[cancer]].

[[Brewer's yeast]] is known to be a rich source of nutrients; therefore, as expected, beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients, including [[magnesium]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]], [[phosphorus]], [[biotin]], and [[B vitamins]]. In fact, beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread".<ref>
{{cite conference
| first = C. W.
| last = Bamforth
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Beer as liquid bread: Overlapping science.
| booktitle = World Grains Summit 2006: Foods and Beverages
| pages =
| publisher =
|date=17 September&ndash;20, 2006
| location = San Francisco, California, USA
| url = http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/2006/abstracts/o-76.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate =2006-11-06 }}</ref>
Some sources maintain that filtered beer loses much of its nutrition.<ref>{{cite paper| title=CXLVII. Investigation of barley, malt, and beer for vitamins B and C| date=21 July 1924| format =PDF| author =Arthur Harden and Sylvester Solomon Zilva|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1259493&blobtype=pdf/|| publisher =Biochemical department, Lister Institute|accessdate =2006-11-06 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Why our beer is special and, dare we say, better; No filtering
| work =
| publisher = Franconia Notch Brewing Company
| date =
| url = http://www.4front.com/brewery/beer%20-%20why%20ours%20is%20special.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate =2006-11-06}} </ref>

A 2005 Japanese study found that [[low alcohol beer]] may possess strong anti-cancer properties.<ref>{{cite news | title=Non-alcoholic beer may help mice fight cancer | date=2005-01-21 | publisher=Reuters | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6853732/ }}</ref> Another study found nonalcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages.<ref>{{cite news | title=Double benefit from alcohol-free beer | date=2005-05-17 | publisher=Food Navigator | url=http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?id=52157-double-benefit-from }}</ref> However, much research suggests that the primary health benefit from alcoholic beverages comes from the alcohol they contain.<ref> Dean edell. Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. NY: Harper Collins, 2004, pp. 191&ndash;192. </ref>

It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a [[beer belly]], rather than beer consumption. A recent study, however, found a link between [[binge drinking]] and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself.<ref>{{cite news
| last =
| first =
| coauthors =
| title =Drink binges 'cause beer belly'
| work =
| pages =
| publisher = BBC News
| date= 28 November 2004
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4048969.stm
| accessdate =2006-11-06}}</ref> Several diet books quote beer as having the same [[glycemic index]] as [[maltose]], a very high (and therefore undesirable) 110; however, the maltose undergoes [[metabolism]] by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.<ref>{{Citation
| last =Skilnik
| first =Bob
| title =Is there maltose in your beer?
| publisher =Realbeer
| url =http://www.realbeer.com/edu/health/maltose.php
| accessdate = 2007-12-23}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Beer}}
{{commons|Beer}}
*[[Beer style]]
*[[Brewery]]
*[[Brewing]]
*[[History of beer]]
*[[Homebrewing]]
*[[List of commercial brands of beer]]
*[[List of countries by beer consumption per capita]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
<div class="references-small">
*''Archeological Parameters For the Origins of Beer.'' Thomas W. Kavanagh. [http://www.brewingtechniques.com/library/backissues/issue2.5/kavanagh.html]
*''The Complete Guide to World Beer'', Roger Protz. ISBN 1-84442-865-6.
*''The Barbarian's Beverage: a history of beer in ancient Europe'', Max Nelson. ISBN 0-415-31121-7.
*''The World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 1-85076-000-4
*''The New World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 0-89471-884-3
*''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Martyn Cornell. ISBN 0-7553-1165-5
*''Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain'', Peter Haydon. ISBN 0-7509-2748-8
*''The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany'', Jeff Evans. ISBN 1-85249-198-1
*''Country House Brewing in England, 1500&ndash;1900'', Pamela Sambrook. ISBN 1-85285-127-9
*''Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300&ndash;1600 '', Judith M. Bennett. ISBN 0-19-512650-5
*''A History of Beer and Brewing'', I. Hornsey. ISBN 0-85404-630-5
*''Beer: an Illustrated History'', Brian Glover. ISBN 1-84038-597-9
*''Beer in America: The Early Years 1587&ndash;1840&mdash;Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation'', Gregg Smith. ISBN 0-937381-65-9
*''Big Book of Beer'', Adrian Tierney-Jones. ISBN 1-85249-212-0
*''Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage'', Bob Ricketts. ISBN 1-905203-69-1
*''Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition'', Phil Marowski. ISBN 0-937381-84-5
*''The World Encyclopedia of Beer'', Brian Glover. ISBN 0-7548-0933-1
*''The Complete Joy of Homebrewing'', Charlie Papazian ISBN 0-380-77287-6 (This is the seminal work on home brewing that is almost universally suggested to new hobbyist)
*''The Brewmaster's Table'', Garrett Oliver. ISBN 0-06-000571-8
*{{cite book |last= Vaughan|first= J. G.|coauthors= C. A. Geissler |title= The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-19-854825-7 }}
*''Bacchus and Civic Order: The Culture of Drink in Early Modern Germany'', Ann Tlusty. ISBN 0-813920-45-0
</div>

{{Beer Styles}}
{{Beers of the world}}
{{Alcoholic beverages}}
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[[Category:Beer| ]]

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[[als:Bier]]
[[ang:Bēor]]
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[[be:Піва]]
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[[lv:Alus]]
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[[ru:Пиво]]
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