Medical cannabis: Difference between revisions
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Writers, such as, [[William F. Buckley]], [[Fred Gardner (activist)|Fred Gardner]], [[Christopher Hitchens]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://imdb.com/title/tt1069233/ |title=In Pot We Trust (2007) (TV) |work=The Internet Movie Database |publisher=IMDb.com, Inc.}}</ref> [[Jack Herer]], [[Peter McWilliams]], [[Ann Druyan]], [[Ed Rosenthal]], [[Rick Steves]], [[Samuel Thompson]], and [[Robert Anton Wilson]] also support the legalization of medical cannabis. |
Writers, such as, [[William F. Buckley]], [[Fred Gardner (activist)|Fred Gardner]], [[Christopher Hitchens]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://imdb.com/title/tt1069233/ |title=In Pot We Trust (2007) (TV) |work=The Internet Movie Database |publisher=IMDb.com, Inc.}}</ref> [[Jack Herer]], [[Peter McWilliams]], [[Ann Druyan]], [[Ed Rosenthal]], [[Rick Steves]], [[Samuel Thompson]], and [[Robert Anton Wilson]] also support the legalization of medical cannabis. |
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=== Notable anti-medical cannabis individuals === |
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Politicians that oppose the medicinal use of cannabis include [[Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy|Drug Czar]]s [[Andrea Barthwell]], [[William Bennett]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/viewsource.asp?ID=1336 | title=William J. Bennett | publisher=Medical Marijuana ProCon.org | work=Biography of William J. Bennett | date=2007-10-28 | accessdate=2007-10-28}}</ref> [[Barry McCaffrey]],<ref>[http://www.abanet.org/irr/hr/fall97/marijuan.html Medical Marijuana: A Dream Up In Smoke? - Human Rights Magazine Fall 1997]</ref> and [[John P. Walters]], former [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]s [[George H. W. Bush]] and [[George W. Bush]], congressmen [[Theodore Sophocleus]]<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4183/is_20020326/ai_n10049189 Opposition set to snuff out medical marijuana bill | Daily Record, The (Baltimore) | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref> and [[Mark Souder]], and former governors [[Mitt Romney]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/politics/2007/10/07/romney.confronted.cnn | title=Romney Confronted | publisher=CNN | work=CNN Video - Breaking News |date=2007-10-08 | accessdate=2007-10-08}}</ref> and [[Eliot Spitzer]]. |
Politicians that oppose the medicinal use of cannabis include [[Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy|Drug Czar]]s [[Andrea Barthwell]], [[William Bennett]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/viewsource.asp?ID=1336 | title=William J. Bennett | publisher=Medical Marijuana ProCon.org | work=Biography of William J. Bennett | date=2007-10-28 | accessdate=2007-10-28}}</ref> [[Barry McCaffrey]],<ref>[http://www.abanet.org/irr/hr/fall97/marijuan.html Medical Marijuana: A Dream Up In Smoke? - Human Rights Magazine Fall 1997]</ref> and [[John P. Walters]], former [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]s [[George H. W. Bush]] and [[George W. Bush]], congressmen [[Theodore Sophocleus]]<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4183/is_20020326/ai_n10049189 Opposition set to snuff out medical marijuana bill | Daily Record, The (Baltimore) | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref> and [[Mark Souder]], and former governors [[Mitt Romney]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/politics/2007/10/07/romney.confronted.cnn | title=Romney Confronted | publisher=CNN | work=CNN Video - Breaking News |date=2007-10-08 | accessdate=2007-10-08}}</ref> and [[Eliot Spitzer]]. |
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Revision as of 20:11, 11 March 2009
Medical cannabis refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended drug or herbal therapy as well as synthetic THC and cannabinoids. So far, the medical use of cannabis is legal only in a limited number of territories, including Canada, Belgium, Austria, the Netherlands, Spain, Israel, Finland, and some U.S. states which include Michigan and California. This usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a framework defined by local laws.
There are many studies regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context.[2][3][4][5]
Indications
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2009) |
In a year 2002 review of medical literature, medical cannabis was shown to have established effects in the treatment of nausea, vomiting, PMS, unintentional weight loss, and lack of appetite.[6] Other "relatively well-confirmed" effects were in the treatment of "spasticity, painful conditions, especially neurogenic pain, movement disorders, asthma, [and] glaucoma."[6] A number of other conditions have been claimed to be treatable or otherwise ameliorated by cannabis, though based only on anecdotal evidence.
Elsewhere it has been shown to be beneficial in treating symptoms associated with treatments for cancer, AIDS, inflammatory bowel disease, and hepatitis.[citation needed]
Cannabis also acts as an antispasmodic and anticonvulsant and is indicated for neurological conditions such as epilepsy especially complex partial seizures, multiple sclerosis, and spasms. As an analgesic and an immunomodulator it is indicated for conditions such as migraine, arthritis, spinal and skeletal disorders. As a bronchodilator it is beneficial for asthma. It also reduces the intraocular pressure and is indicated for glaucoma. Recent studies have shown the drug to be efficacious in treating mood disorders and mental health issues such as depression, post traumatic stress disorder, clinical depression, attention-deficit disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and bipolar disorder[7] It is also indicated for premenstrual syndrome, hypertension, and insomnia. It is also reported to be an effective treatment for constipation.[citation needed]
Preliminary findings also indicate that cannabis-based drugs could prove useful in treating Inflammatory Bowel Disease (consisting of Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis[8]
According to a survey on the recommendation of cannabis in California,[9] cannabis is indicated for over 250 conditions.
Indication | Benefit |
---|---|
Medicinal compounds
Cannabidiol
Cannabidiol, also known as "CBD", is a major constituent of medical cannabis. CBD represents up to 40% of extracts of the medical cannabis plant.[10] Cannabidiol relieves convulsion, inflammation, anxiety, nausea, and inhibits cancer cell growth.[11] Recent studies have shown cannabidiol to be as effective as atypical antipsychotics in treating schizophrenia.[12] In November 2007 it was reported that CBD reduces growth of aggressive human breast cancer cells in vitro and reduces their invasiveness. It thus represents the first non-toxic exogenous agent that can lead to down-regulation of tumor aggressiveness.[13][14] It is also a neuroprotective antioxidant.[15]
β-Caryophyllene
Part of the mechanism by which medical cannabis has been shown to reduce tissue inflammation is via a compound called β-caryophyllene.[16] A cannabinoid receptor called CB2 plays a vital part in reducing inflammation in humans and other animals.[16] β-Caryophyllene has been shown to be a selective activator of the CB2 receptor.[16] β-Caryophyllene is especially concentrated in cannabis essential oil, which contains about 12–35% β-caryophyllene.[16]
Pharmacologic THC and THC derivatives
In the USA, the FDA has approved two cannabinoids for use as medical therapies: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone. It is important to note that these medicines are not smoked. Dronabinol is a synthetic THC medication,[17] while nabilone is a synthetic cannabinoid marketed under the brand name Cesamet.
These medications are usually used when first line treatments for nausea fail to work. In extremely high doses and in rare cases there is a possibility of "psychotomimetic" side effects. The other commonly-used antiemetic drugs are not associated with these side effects.
The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the adjunctive treatment (use along side other medicines) of both multiple sclerosis[18] and cancer related pain.[19] This medication may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription.[20] Dr. William Notcutt is one of the chief researchers that has developed Sativex, and he has been working with GW and founder Geoffrey Guy since the company's inception in 1998. Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study "had everything to do with politics."[21]
Scientists are also working on drugs that prevent naturally occurring enzymes from blocking pain-relieving cannabinoid receptors such as 2-arachidonoylgylcerol (2-AG).[22]
Medication | Year approved | Licensed indications | Cost |
---|---|---|---|
Nabilone | 1985 | Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics | $4000.00 U.S. for a year's supply (in Canada)[23] |
Marinol | 1992 | Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics, AIDS wasting | $723.16 U.S. for 30 doses @ 10 mg online[24] |
Sativex | 1995, 1997 | The product is approved in Canada as adjunctive treatment for the symptomatic relief of neuropathic pain in multiple sclerosis, and more recently for pain due to cancer. Extracted from cannabis plants. | $9,351 Canadian per year[25] |
History
Ancient China & Ancient Taiwan
Cannabis, called dà má (大麻) in Chinese, is known to have been used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.[26] Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for approximately 4,000 years.[27] In the early 3rd century AD, Hua Tuo was the first known person in China to use cannabis as an anesthetic. He reduced the plant to powder and mixed it with wine for administration.[28] Cannabis was prescribed to treat vomiting, plus infectious and parasitic hemorrhaging.
Ancient Egypt
The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1,550 B.C.) from Ancient Egypt describes medical marijuana.[29] Other ancient Egyptian papyri that mention medical marijuana are the Ramesseum III Papyrus (1700 BC), the Berlin Papyrus (1300 BC) and the Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus VI (1300 BC).[30] The ancient Egyptians even used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids.[31] The egyptologist Lise Manniche notes the reference to "plant medical marijuana" in several Egyptian texts, one of which dates back to the eighteenth century B.C.[32]
Ancient India
Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included insomnia, headaches, a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, and pain: cannabis was frequently used to relieve the pain of childbirth.
Ancient Greece
The Ancient Greeks used cannabis not only for human medicine, but also for veterinary medicine.[33] The Greeks used cannabis to dress wounds and sores on their horses.[33]
In humans, dried leaves of cannabis were used to treat nose bleeds, and cannabis seeds were used to expel tapeworms.[33] The most frequently described use of cannabis in humans was to steep green seeds of cannabis in either water or wine, later taking the seeds out and using the warm extract to treat inflammation and pain resulting from obstruction of the ear.[33]
In the 5th century BCE Herotodus, a Greek historian, described how the Scythians of the Middle East used cannabis in steam baths.[33]
Medieval Islamic world
In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians made use of the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, pain killing and antipyretic properties of Cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries.[34]
Modern science
An Irish doctor, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, was held mainly responsible for showing his Western colleagues about the healing properties of marijuana. He was an herb professor at the Medical College of Calcutta, and conducted a marijuana experiment in the 1830s. O'Shaughnessy created preparations and tested animal effects. He continued on to administer this marijuana to patients in order to help treat muscle spasms/stomach cramps or general pain.[35]
Cannabis as a medicine became common throughout much of the world by the 19th century. It was used as the primary pain reliever until the invention of aspirin.[27] Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like O'Shaughnessy and Moreau de Tours, who used it to treat melancholia and migraines, and as a sleeping aid, analgesic and anticonvulsant.
By the time the United States banned cannabis in a federal law, the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act, the plant was no longer extremely popular.[36][citation needed] Skepticism about marijuana arose in response to the bill. [citation needed] The situation was exacerbated by the stereotypes promoted by the media, that the drug was used primarily by Mexican and African immigrants.[36]
Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.[37]
In 1972 Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D. reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published "Marijuana Medical Papers." High intraocular pressure causes blindness in glaucoma patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients. Many Vietnam War veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries.[38] Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with chemotherapy and AIDS, along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders. Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of alcoholism and addiction to other drugs such as heroin and the prevention of migraines. In recent years, studies have shown or researchers have speculated that the main chemical in the drug, THC, might help prevent atherosclerosis.
Later, in the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC, the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug Marinol. Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult. The effects of smoked cannabis are felt almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed.[39] Marinol (Jojel), like ingested cannabis, is very psychoactive, and is harder to titrate than smoked cannabis.[40] Marinol has also consistently been more expensive than herbal cannabis.[41] Some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC.[42]
In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six U.S. states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana. These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.[citation needed] Voters in eight states showed their support for marijuana prescriptions or recommendations given by physicians between 1996 and 1999, including Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, going against policies of the federal government.[43]
In May 2001, "The Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (Russo, Mathre, Byrne et al.) was completed. This three-day examination of major body functions of four of the five living US federal cannabis patients found "mild pulmonary changes" in two patients.[44]
On October 7, 2003, a patent (#6,630,507) entitled: "Cannabinoids as Antioxidants and Neuroprotectants" was awarded to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, based on research done at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). This patent claims that cannabinoids are "useful in the treatment and prophylaxis of wide variety of oxidation associated diseases, such as ischemic, age-related, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as stroke and trauma, or in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia." [45]
Historian Jacob Appel has argued that the medicinal marijuana movement bears striking similarities to the medicinal beer movement of the 1920s. [46] Both efforts attempted to muster medical expertise in the face of a national Prohibition and both pitted the rights of physicians against the authority of the federal government.
Organizational support
An increasing number of medical organizations have endorsed allowing patients access to medical marijuana with their physicians' approval. These include, but are not limited to, the following:
- American Medical Association[47] - the largest physician group in the U.S.
- The American College of Physicians - America's second largest physicians group[47]
- Leukemia & Lymphoma Society - America's second largest cancer charity.[47]
- American Academy of Family Physicians[47]
- American Public Health Association[47]
- American Psychiatric Association[47]
- American Nurses Association[47]
- British Medical Association[47]
- AIDS Action[47]
- American Academy of HIV Medicine[47]
- Lymphoma Foundation of America[47]
- Health Canada[47]
Criticism regarding medical cannabis
A major criticism of cannabis as medicine is opposition to smoking as a method of consumption. In contrast, the use of a vaporizer for cannabis administration delivers the active ingredients and their benefits very rapidly, without the health costs associated with smoking.
On 20 April, 2006, The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an advisory against smoked medical marijuana stating that, "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Furthermore, there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful." [3] Some prominent American societies have been reluctant to endorse medicinal cannabis. For example: [4], the National Multiple Sclerosis Society [5] , the American Academy of Ophthalmology [6] and the American Cancer Society [7]. (Federal Register, 1992).
The Institute of Medicine, run by the United States National Academy of Sciences, conducted a comprehensive study in 1999 to assess the potential health benefits of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids. The study concluded that smoking cannabis is not recommended for the treatment of any disease condition, but did conclude that nausea, appetite loss, pain and anxiety can all be mitigated by marijuana. While the study expressed reservations about smoked marijuana due to the health risks associated with smoking, the study team concluded that until another mode of ingestion was perfected that could provide the same relief as smoked marijuana, there was no alternative. In addition, the study pointed out the inherent difficulty in marketing a non patentable herb. Pharmaceutical companies will not substantially profit unless there is a patent. For those reasons, the Institute of Medicine concluded that there is little future in smoked cannabis as a medically approved medication. The report also concluded for certain patients, such as the terminally ill or those with debilitating symptoms, the long-term risks are not of great concern.[48]
In an unpublished 2001 study by the Mayo Clinic, Marinol was shown to be less effective than the steroid megestrol acetate in helping cancer patients regain lost appetites.[49] The mechanism by which megestrol acetate works is unknown and the compound can cause "impotence, gas, rash, high blood pressure, fever, decreased libido, insomnia, upset stomach, and high blood sugar. . .," as well as "breakthrough bleeding" in women.[8]
Harm reduction
Many medical cannabis opponents note that smoking cannabis is harmful to the respiratory system. However, this harm can be minimized or eliminated by the use of a vaporizer or ingesting the drug in an edible form or other non-smoking modes of delivery like tinctures. Vaporizers are devices that vaporize the active constituents (cannabinoids) and the fragrant aromatic substances in the preparation without combusting the plant material and thus preventing the formation of toxic substances. Studies have shown that vaporizers can dramatically reduce[50] or even eliminate[51] the release of irritants and toxic compounds.
In order to kill microorganisms, especially mold, the scientists "Levitz and Diamond (1991) suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150 °C [302 °F], for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed conidia of A. fumigatus, A. flavus and A. niger, and did not degrade the active component of marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)."[52]
Medical cannabis users find many reliefs from food-based cannabis medicines. The longer lasting sedative qualities of these "nutriceuticals" make for ideal medicines when used correctly.[citation needed] Many companies in California produce these medicines for cannabis dispensing collectives throughout the state. Compassion Medicinal Edibles, formerly known as Tainted Inc. were one of the state's largest producers of non-smoked cannabis edibles until the Drug Enforcement Agents shut down their operation in September of 2007. The federal government continues to interfere with providers of cannabis medicines in states that have legislation protecting the use of cannabis medicines.[citation needed] Many of their arguments against medical cannabis have to do with the dangers of smoking, yet the government continues to vilify companies that produce non-smoked forms of cannabis medicines in an effort to create fear about cannabis medicines in the community. This effort has led to the arrest and prosecution of many honest citizens operating in conjunction with state law, including people working for Compassion Medicinal Edibles. On September 3rd, 2008 the company's director and a co-worker were sentenced to terms of community confinement and federal probation for their role in providing food-based cannabis medicines to sick and dying patients in California.[citation needed]
Availability in Austria
On July 9, 2008 the Austrian Parliament approved cannabis cultivation for scientific and medical uses.[53]
Availability in Canada
In Canada, the regulation on access to marijuana for medical purposes, established by Health Canada in July 2001, defines two categories of patients eligible for access to medical cannabis. The category 1 list individuals suffering from "acute pain", "violent nausea and/or other serious symptoms caused by the following conditions: multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, disease of the spinal cord, cancer, AIDS/HIV infection, severe forms of arthritis and/or epilepsy. The category 2 "key applicants who have serious pathological symptoms other than those described in category 1."[54] The application of eligible patients must be supported by a doctor.
The cannabis distributed by Health Canada is provided under the brand CanniMed by the company Prairie Plant Systems Inc. In 2006, 420kg of CanniMed cannabis was sold, representing an increase of 80% over the previous year.[55] It is also legal for patients approved by Health Canada to grow their own cannabis for personal consumption, and it is possible to obtain a production license as a person designated by a patient. Health Canada noted however that "no notice of compliance has been issued for marijuana for medical purposes."
Availability in Spain
In Spain, since late 1990 and early 2000, medical cannabis underwent a process of progressive decriminalization and legalization. The parliament of the region of Catalonia is the first in Spain have voted unanimously in 2001 legalizing medical marijuana, it is quickly followed by parliaments of Aragon and the Balearic Islands. The Spanish Penal Code prohibits the sale of cannabis but it does not prohibit consumption. Until early 2000, the Penal Code did not distinguish between therapeutic use of cannabis and recreational use, however, several court decisions show that this distinction is increasingly taken into account by the judges. From 2006, the sale of seed is legalized, possession or consumption is still forbidden in public places but permitted in private premises. Moreover, the cultivation of cannabis plants is now authorized in a private place.
Several studies have been conducted to study the effects of cannabis on patients suffering from disease like cancer, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, the seizures or the asthma. This research was conducted by various Spanish agencies at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid headed by Dr. Manuel Guzman, the hospital of La Laguna in Tenerife led neurosurgeon Luis González Feria or the University of Barcelona.
After legislation, several cannabis clubs have been established including the Basque Country and Catalonia. These clubs, the first of its kind in Europe, are non-profit associations who grow cannabis and sell it at cost to its members. In 2006, members of these clubs were acquitted in trial for possession and sale of cannabis.
Availability in United States
In the United States, it is important to differentiate between medical cannabis at the federal and at the state level. At the federal level, cannabis per se has been made criminal by implementation of the Controlled Substances Act.
Notable pro-medical cannabis individuals
Supporters of legalizing cannabis for medical use range from actors and musicians to politicans, writers, and scientists. Major activists include Valerie Corral, Rob Kampia, Steve Kubby, Ethan Nadelmann, Dennis Peron, Angel Raich, Robert Randall,[56] Keith Stroup, and Marc Emery.
Notable celebrities who are pro-medical cannabis include actors Jack Black, Drew Carey, Kyle Gass, Woody Harrelson, Penn Jillette, Bill Maher, Jeremy Miller, Joe Rogan, and Rob Van Dam, musicians Willie Nelson, Snoop Dogg, Bobby Steele, and the hip hop group Cypress Hill, and talk show hosts Neal Boortz, Montel Williams,[57] and Bill Handel.
Politicians from multiple parties support medicinal marijuana use, such as Democratic Congressmans Barney Frank, Dennis Kucinich, Sam Farr, Republican Congressmen Ron Paul, MD,[58] and Dana Rohrabacher, Polish Parliament member Janusz Korwin-Mikke, Republican Senator Bill Mescher, and Libertarian Loretta Nall. Researchers and scientist advocates include Jay Cavanaugh, PhD, Lyle Craker, PhD, Milton Friedman, PhD, Stephen Jay Gould, Lester Grinspoon, MD, and Carl Sagan, PhD.
Writers, such as, William F. Buckley, Fred Gardner, Christopher Hitchens,[59] Jack Herer, Peter McWilliams, Ann Druyan, Ed Rosenthal, Rick Steves, Samuel Thompson, and Robert Anton Wilson also support the legalization of medical cannabis.
Notable anti-medical cannabis individuals
Politicians that oppose the medicinal use of cannabis include Drug Czars Andrea Barthwell, William Bennett,[60] Barry McCaffrey,[61] and John P. Walters, former U.S. Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, congressmen Theodore Sophocleus[62] and Mark Souder, and former governors Mitt Romney[63] and Eliot Spitzer.
Attorney Generals Michael Mukasey, Janet Reno, and Dan Lungren also prefer cannabis to be illegal, as well as former U.S. Prosecutors Bonnie Dumanis,[64] Carol Lam, and Asa Hutchinson,[65] former Surgeon General Richard Carmona,[66] former Solicitor General Paul Clement, International Narcotics Control Board president Hamid Ghodse, Republican Senior Senator John McCain,[67] and former U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala. Conservative talk show hosts, such Rush Limbaugh[68] and Hal Lindsey, also oppose the the use of medical cannabis.
Legal and medical status of cannabis
Cannabis is in Schedule IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, making it subject to special restrictions. Article 2 provides for the following, in reference to Schedule IV drugs:
A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only, including clinical trials therewith to be conducted under or subject to the direct supervision and control of the Party.
This provision, while apparently providing for the limitation of cannabis to research purposes only, also seems to allow some latitude for nations to make their own judgments. The official Commentary on the Single Convention indicates that Parties are expected to make that judgment in good faith.
See also
- California Cannabis Research Medical Group
- Cannabis Buyers Club
- Eagle Bill
- Legality of cannabis by country
- Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies
- Patients Out of Time
- Tilden's Extract
- United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative
References
Notes
- ^ "Cannabis sativa information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-07-13.
- ^ "Peer-Reviewed Medical Studies Involving Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts (1990 - 2008)". Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. ProCon.org.
- ^ "Medical Use". National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. 2007-11-20.
- ^ "Medical Marijuana Science and Studies". Marijuana Policy Project.
- ^ Paul Armentano (2007-07-13). "New Studies Expose Government Lies About Medical Pot". National Organization to Reform Marijuana Laws Foundation. AlterNet, Independent Media Institute.
- ^ a b "DrFrankLucido.com - Therapeutic Effects". www.medboardwatch.com. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
- ^ http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/19687/
- ^ Cannabis-based drugs could offer new hope for inflammatory bowel disease patients
- ^ Dale Gieringer, "Medical Use of Cannabis in California," in Franjo Grotenhermen, M.D. & Ethan Russo, M.D., ed., Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, Haworth Press, 2002 [1]
- ^ Grlie, L (1976). "A comparative study on some chemical and biological characteristics of various samples of cannabis resin". Bulletin on Narcotics. 14: 37–46.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Mechoulam R, Peters M, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Hanus LO (2007). "Cannabidiol - recent advances". Chemistry & Biodiversity. 4 (8): 1678–1692. doi:10.1002/cbdv.200790147. PMID 17712814.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Zuardi, A.W (2006). "Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug" (PDF). Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 39: 421–429. ISSN 0100-879X ISSN 0100-879X.
{{cite journal}}
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value (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY (2007). "Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells". Mol. Cancer Ther. 6 (11): 2921–7. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-07-0371. PMID 18025276.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Article on BBC site
- ^ Cannabidiol and (−)Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants, A. J. Hampson, M. Grimaldi, J. Axelrod, and D. Wink, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 July 7; 95(14): 8268–8273.
- ^ a b c d "Why Cannabis Stems Inflammation". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
- ^ FDA Press Release
- ^ Koch, W. 23 Jun 2005. Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada. USA Today (online). Retrieved on 27 February 2007
- ^ "Sativex - Investigational Cannabis-Based Treatment for Pain and Multiple Sclerosis Drug Development Technology". www.drugdevelopment-technology.com. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
- ^ "Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
- ^ Greenberg, Gary (2005-11-01). "Respectable Reefer". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
- ^ Cosmos Online - Cannabis-like drug dims pain without high (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/2366/cannabis-drug-dims-pain-without-high)
- ^ "Nabilone marijuana-based drug reduces fibromyalgia pain". www.news-medical.net. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
- ^ "Compare Marinol Prices on PharmacyChecker.com". www.pharmacychecker.com. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
- ^ (cadth-acmts.ca)
- ^ "Marijuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years - 1. Cannabis in the Ancient World". www.druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
- ^ a b "History of Cannabis". BBC News.
- ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 9004156054. Page 332.
- ^ "The Ebers Papyrus The Oldest (confirmed) Written Prescriptions For Medical Marihuana era 1,550 BC". www.onlinepot.org. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
- ^ "History of Cannabis". www.reefermadnessmuseum.org. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
- ^ Pain, Stephanie (2007-12-15). "The Pharaoh's pharmacists". New Scientist. Reed Business Information Ltd.
- ^ Lise Manniche, An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, University of Texas Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0292704152
- ^ a b c d e "The Haworth Press Online Catalog: Article Abstract". www.haworthpress.com. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
- ^ Lozano, Indalecio (2001). "The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 1 (1): 63–70. doi:10.1300/J175v01n01_05.
- ^ Mack, Allyson (2001). Marijuana as Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy. National Academy Press.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/history/first12000/11.htm
- ^ "Golden Guide". www.zauberpilz.com.
- ^ Zimmerman, Bill (1998). Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You?: A Factual Guide to Medical Uses of Marijuana. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0879839066.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Cannabis: Effects". Lycos Retriever. Lycos, Inc.
- ^ "Synthetic THC / Marinol". The Alliance for Reform of Drug Policy in Arkansas, Inc.
- ^ "How does the cost of marijuana compare to the cost of Marinol?". Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. ProCon.org.
- ^ McPartland, John M.; Russo, Ethan B. "Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts: Greater Than the Sum of Their Parts?". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. International Association for Cannabis as Medicine.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Mack,Alison ; Joy, Janet (2001). Marijuana As Medicine. National Academy Press.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Russo, Ethan; Mathre, Mary Lynn; Byrne, Al; Velin, Robert; Bach, Paul J.; Sanchez-Ramos, Juan; Kirlin, Kristin A (2002). "Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (PDF). Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 2 (1). The Haworth Press, Inc.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ US Govt. Patent Office. http://www.uspto.gov/
- ^ Physicians Are Not Bootleggers, The Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Summer 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "The American College of Physicians Position Paper" (PDF). The American College of Physicians. 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-20. Cite error: The named reference "MPP" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "Cannabis and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Institute of Medicine, 1999.
- ^ Cannabis Appetite Boost Lacking in Cancer Study" The New York Times, May 13, 2001.
- ^ Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds By D. Gieringer et.al. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 4(1) 2004, [2]
- ^ Evaluation of a Vaporizing Device (Volcano) for the Pulmonary Administration of Tetrahydrocannabinol. By A. HAZEKAMP, R. RUHAAK, et.al. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 95, NO. 6, JUNE 2006 abstract
- ^ Microbiological contaminants of marijuana
- ^ "AFP: Austria allows cannabis for medical purposes". afp.google.com. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
- ^ Template:Fr Foire aux questions au sujet de la marihuana à des fins médicales, sur le site de Santé Canada
- ^ Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. « More pot, please: Demand booming for Prairie Plant's marijuana », CBC, 23 octobre 2006.
- ^ "In Memory: Robert Randall, Father of the Medical Marijuana Movement". 2001. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
- ^ "Taking Action: Montel Williams on medical marijuana". The Montel Williams MS Foundation. 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
- ^ "Ron Paul". Medical Marijuana Pro Con. MPP.ORG.
- ^ "In Pot We Trust (2007) (TV)". The Internet Movie Database. IMDb.com, Inc.
- ^ "William J. Bennett". Biography of William J. Bennett. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
- ^ Medical Marijuana: A Dream Up In Smoke? - Human Rights Magazine Fall 1997
- ^ Opposition set to snuff out medical marijuana bill | Daily Record, The (Baltimore) | Find Articles at BNET.com
- ^ "Romney Confronted". CNN Video - Breaking News. CNN. 2007-10-08. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
- ^ SignOnSanDiego.com > News > Politics - Medical marijuana remains in legal limbo
- ^ "Asa Hutchinson". Biography of Asa Hutchinson. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
- ^ "Richard Carmona". Biography of Richard Carmona. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
- ^ http://granitestaters.com/candidates/
- ^ "Rush Limbaugh". Biography of Rush Limbaugh. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
Further reading
- Cabral. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 1: "Marijuana and Cannabinoids: Effects on Infections, Immunity, and AIDS" (2001).
- Chang et al. The Science of Medical Marijuana: "Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as an Antiemetic in Cancer Patients Receiving High Dose Methotrexate" (December 1979).
- Doblin, et al. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy: "Marijuana as Antiemetic Medicine: A Survey of Oncologists' Experiences and Attitudes" (July 1991).
- Foltin, et al. National Center for Biotechnology Information: "Behavioral analysis of marijuana effects on food intake in humans" (September 26, 1986).
- Joy, et al. National Academies Press: "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base" (1999).
- Mikuriya, M.D. Introduction from Marijuana: Medical Papers (1973).
- Mirken. AlterNet: "New Studies Destroy the Last Objection to Medical Marijuana" (May 2, 2007).
- Schaffer Library of Drug Policy: "References on Multiple Sclerosis and Marijuana"
- Tashkin. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 1: "Effects of Smoked Marijuana on the Lung and Its Immune Defenses: Implications for Medicinal Use in HIV-Infected Patients" (2001).
- Vinciguerra, et al. The Science of Medical Marijuana: "Peer Reviewed Results of New York State-sponsored Cancer/Marijuana Studies" (October 1988).
- Wujastyk. Ayurveda at the Crossroads of Care and Cure: "Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine". ISBN 972-98672-5-9. (2002).
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration: "Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine" (April 20, 2006).
External links
- Template:Dmoz, links to pro-legalization websites
- Template:Dmoz, links to medical websites concerning cannabis
- List of conditions that medical cannabis helps
- C.A.L.M. - Cannabis As Living Medicine
- Advances in the History of Psychology: Bibliography: Cannabis canadensis, York University
- Waiting to Inhale, a documentary examining the movement to legalize cannabis for medical use
- Office of Medicinal Cannabis (Netherlands)
- Cannabis oil as medicine
- Cannabinoid Society, research organization investigating cannabis therapeutics
- Medical Cannabis Caregivers, resource for physicians and caregivers
- The Dispensary Guide, directory of medical cannabis dispensary locations
- Scannabis.com, cannabis news and reports from around the world
- Juana Care, a medical marijuana social network
- Medical Cannabis Club of Guelph, a medical cannabis dispensary
- BC Compassion Club Society
- MarijuanaByMail.com
- The Union: The Business Behind Getting High (video)