Hinduism

This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation).

Hinduism (हिन्दू धर्म; also known as Sanātana Dharma - सनातन धर्म, and Vaidika-Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the revealed knowledge of the Veda and is the direct descendent of the Vedic Indo-Iranian religion. It encompasses many religious traditions that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. The modern estimates of Hinduism's origin vary from 3102 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is also the third largest religion in the world with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in Bhārat (India). It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.

See Hindu for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus.

Core Concepts

The Eternal Way

"Sanātana Dharma" (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values ), Hinduism's traditional name, speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as "brəhmən", nominative singular being ब्रह्म or "brəhmə"), the Supreme immanent and transcendant Reality or the Cosmic Spirit.

Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra:

OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityor māmritam gamaya

"OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

Hindus believe that every living being is an eternally existing spirit (the soul or the self). While changing its body at every moment, this soul passes from one form of body to another. ^[1]

Basic beliefs

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in Dharma (Duties and obligations), Reincarnation (rebirth), Karma ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Moksha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action), Jnana (knowledge), and of course, Ishvara (the God). Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Moksha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the divine supreme and lead to a birth with higher-consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the divine supreme and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even heaven (svarga) and Hell (naraka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join or reach the Universal spirit or God (depending on belief), is known as moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus.

The other principles include the guru/chela dynamic, the Divinity of Word of OM and the power of mantras (religious hymn), manifestations of God's spirit in all forms of existence; that is an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine (Atman/Brahman) is in every living being. It allows for many spiritual paths leading to the One Ultimate Reality.

Practice (Yoga Dharma)

Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or Raja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The yogas provide a sort of alternate paths (or faiths) that links together various hindu beliefs and can also be used to categorize non-hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvana.

The four objectives Of Life

Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of purushartha, the "four objectives of life". They are kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is said that all humans seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, framework of dharma(righteousness), in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is moksha (salvation), (also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samadhi, Nirvana, etc.) from Samsara (cycle of birth and death).

The four stages of Life

Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Ashramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation in Brahma") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as the renunciation, to find God through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

File:Gita1.jpg

Lord Krishna revealing the eternal super-consciousness to Arjuna

Nature of God

The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, with the personal deities, called devas as different aspects or manifestations of one Brahman. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as the Universal Spirit. Brahman is the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever will be.

Additionally, like Abrahamic religions which believe in personal God, Hindus also believe in God that is the personal form of Brahman. Such a view of seeing the Brahman with positive qualities gives rise to the concept of God as the Supreme Lord or Ishvara (ईश्वर). All Hindus maintain that Ishvara is One and only One, although the demi-gods or the devas which are his mundane manifestations could be as numerous as 330 million. Ishvara could be viewed in any way as a non-corporeal, infinite, spiritual being, or anthropomorphic deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, for the sake of devotional worship.

Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman) or with attributes (Saguna Brahman) as God. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Saguna Brahman such Vishnu or Shiva is viewed as male. God's power (or energy) is personified as female or Shakti. However, God and God's energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents God and the actual heat Shakti. According to Smarta views, God can be with attributes, Saguna Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female God) a devotee conceives.

Though all the different paths of Moksha (salvation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smarta traditions, depicts an inclusive monotheistic religion, which accordingly holds that the different dieties are simply different forms of the single God.

Denominations

Main article: Hindu denominations

Each of Hinduisms four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (moksha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Ishwara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. Infact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.

Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions of Him, Hindus all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Shaktism worships the Goddess Devi or alternatively (where it is viewed as a subsect of Shaivism) as the energy of Shiva. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all paths being the same and leading to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the Ultimate Reality. The Trimurti concept (also called the Hindu trinity) of Smartism denotes the three aspects of God as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj which condemns iconolatry and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yagna).

Smartism

Main article: Smartism

Smartas invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal gods (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smartism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smarta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West.

Vaishnavism

Main article: Vaishnavism

A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu (विष्णु) as the Supreme God, and consider other Gods as subordinate (like demi-gods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Vishnu grants ultimately moksha. Vaisnavites, consider worship of other Gods as secondary because Lord Krishna, avatar of Vishnu, and God in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, says in the Gita :

Whatever deity or form a devotee worships,their wishes are granted by Me (Gita: 7:21-22)

O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in a different way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, Yajna) and Lord of the universe (Gita: 9:23).

Shaivism

Main article: Shaivism

Pashupatinath temple is located on the shore of the Bagmati river on the eastern part of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. It is regarded as one of the most sacred temples of Shiva in the world.

Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that Lord Shiva (शिव) is the Supreme and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either monistic or dualistic philosophies.

Shaktism

Main article: Shaktism

Shaktas worship Shakti (or Devi) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity. The "History of the Shakta Religion" explains that The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedanta, Samkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it.

Shaivite views often consider Shaktism to be sub-denomination of Saivism, arguing that Devi is worshipped as female in order to attain union with Siva, who in Saivism is the male counterpart of Devi and in Shaktism, is viewed as the formless Absolute.

Hindu sacred texts

Main article: Hindu scripture

The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.

Shruti

Main article: Shruti

The Vedas (वेद, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti (revealed) by Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Supreme Being Brahman to the sages / seers (rishis) while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of Eternal Knowledge. The four Vedas (the Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas) are various shakhas or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Samhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. They are the BrāhmaNas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āranyakas (आरण्यक) containing the esoteric and mystical expainations of the mantras, and the Upanishads (उपनिषद्) conatining highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (Atman and the Supreme Spirit Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals associated with like, like the Dharmashastras, Grihyasutras, etc but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or Vedic literature.

The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each man, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upanishads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vrtti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauna vrtti) as secondary: saksad upadesas tu srutih - "The instructions of the sruti-sastra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Gosvami, Krsna Sandarbha 29.26-27). In this manner, Advaita takes a stance opposite to, while Vaishnavism similar to the Abrahamic religions, where it is important to interpret the Bible and the Quran literally and not philosophically. The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in it's perfect preservation.

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The Bhagavad Gita describes the mind as turbulent and obstinate. 'The Chariot of the Body': The five horses represent the five senses (tongue, eyes, nose, ears and skin). The rein symbolises the mind, the driver is the intelligence while the passenger is the spirit soul.

Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

A core sacred text of Hinduism and its philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita (भगवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gita, is a summation of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric philosophies. The Bhagavad Gita, meaning "song of the Lord", refers to itself as a 'Yoga Upanishad' and is sometimes called Gītopanişad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahabharata.

While technically it is considered as Smriti text, it has singularly achieved nearly the status of Shruti, or revealed knowledge. This Gita is easy to follow and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, that are most esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practising Hindus.

Smriti

Main article: Smriti

The post- Vedic Hindu texts form the latter category, the most notable of which are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, major epics considered sacred by all followers of Sanatana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Devi Mahatmya, an ode to Devi, the Divine Mother, and the Yoga Sutras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmriti, the 18 Puranas which vividly describe Later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and Sutras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvana Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sutras. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and many Puranas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Agamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. The Shrutis take precedence over Smriti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute.

Origins and society

Origins of Hinduism

Main article: History of Hinduism

The Sun Temple in Konark, Orissa is one of the most famous stone monument in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God Surya.

Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. Hindu puranas and astrononimical evidence within place Lord Krishna's birth at a date of 3100 B.C. Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord Ramas, sometimes dated at over 5,000 B.C. It is believed by many Hindus that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama, believed to be the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Modern indology, on the otherhand, suggests that Hinduism only developed sometime between 1500-1300 BCE based on the linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu spiritual texts.

The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages over a long period of time.

The term 'Hindu' itself is a corrupt form of the word 'Sindhu', which literally means 'dweller across the Indus Valley'. The religion is often named (more appropriately) as Sanatana Dharma in all of its books.

Etymology

The term 'Hindu' is said to be derived from the name of the Sindhu (सिन्धु, ie, the Indus) river, which is known as Hindu in Persian. In the Iranian linguistic branch, the 's' of the Indic branch is cognate with the 'h' sound of Iranian. Although this is the main theory for the origins of the term "Hindu", there are many others. Indian philosopher and grammarian Patanjali (c. 200 BCE) was the first to use the term Hindu (हिन्दु), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called Hindustan or Hind in Hindi, Persian, Arabic, etc. Note that the word Hindustan also has other meanings.

Vedic religion

Main article: Vedic religion

Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centres on worship of the deities Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called yajña (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta, which are sometimes traced back to either the influence of the 3rd millennium BC Indus Valley Civilisation, or to a 2nd millennium BC Indo-Iranian migration (see Aryan invasion theory), or to a combination of these.

Hindu nationalism

Main Articles: Hindu Nationalism, Hindutva, Hindu Rashtra

In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasise Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by Savarkar in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolise the rising bi-polarisation of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to rebuilt a Rama temple at the site of the controversial Babri mosque in Ayodhya. Rama was said to have born on that site, over which probably the Mughal commander Mir Baki had built the Babri mosque after destroying the Vaishnavite temple commemoriating the birthplace, in his alleged frenzy of iconoclasm.

Temples

Main article: Mandir

Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the Meenakshi temple in southern India.

Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the aagama shastras.

Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), puja, meditation, and religious congregation among other religious activities. Puja or worship, frequently uses the aid of a murti (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (devotional songs), and arti are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. People usually kneel or genuflect to the ground and then touch the ground with their forehead, or prostrate themselves completely before the deity. Most Hindu homes also have a section devoted for daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation. This form of icon and temple worship is called puja and is integral to the Bhakti cult.

The temple culture and tradition has been undergoing dramatic changes, partly due to the deteriorating values in society. Similarly, the unique institute of sacred temple dancers and artists, devadasis, has gone through many upheavals.

Current geographic distribution

Main article: Hinduism by country

Largest gathering of humanity on Earth. Around 70 million people participated in Kumbh Mela at Haridwar.

Hinduism continues to grow, as is evidenced by the modern Neasden Temple in London.

Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in India (ie. Bharat). Nepal, some Indonesian islands, Bhutan, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Guyana, Singapore, and Suriname have significant density of Hindu populations. In Nepal, Bhutan and Bali the major religion is Hinduism and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture.

Apart from these countries Bangladesh (14.4 million), Pakistan (2.5 million), Sri Lanka (3 million), Malaysia (1.5 million), United States (1.5 million), South Africa (1.1 million) and the Middle East (1 million) also have sizable Hindu populations.

Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought

Main article: Hindu philosophy

The six Astika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and Uttara Mimamsa (also called 'Vedanta'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika.

Purva Mimamsa

Main article: Purva Mimamsa

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that revelation must be consistent with reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. This school of thought led to later development of advaita philosophy which is key to the Sanatana/Hindu Dharma and was especially championed by philosophers like Adi Sankara and Swami Vivekananda.

Yoga

Main article: Yoga

File:Indus 03.jpg

In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Some historians believe that this 5000 thousand years old sculpture is of a yogi.

Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. It goals are moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads, seeks realisation of the infinite Brahman, through meditational, physical and spritual practices.

Upanishads, sage Patanjali's Yoga Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Gyana Yoga. Of these, the Yoga Sutra is essentially a compilation and systematisation of meditational Yoga philosophy.

Uttara Mimamsa: the three schools of Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their commentary by Badarayana, the Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on unity of all God. The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, Advaita and the schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva, focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature.

Pure monism: Advaita

Main article: Advaita

Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasises oneness of all God. Its proponent was Sankara (788?-820?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavadpada. By the analysis of consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical.

To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God (Ishvara) such as Vishnu or Shiva are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman.

God's energy may also be personified as Devi, the Divine Mother. For Vaishnvaites who follow Ramanuja's philosophy, Devi is Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads with Vishnu for mankind for salvation. For Shaivites, Devi is Parvati. For Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the physical form of God. See Advaita for more.

Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita

Main article: Vishistadvaita

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

Dualism: Dvaita

Main article: Dvaita

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

Alternative cultures of worship

The Bhakti schools

Main article: Bhakti

File:Ganesha2.jpg

Shri Ganesh is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is widely worshipped as Vignesh, the remover of obstacles.

The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realisation. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.

Tantra

Main article: Tantra

Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. Tantra can be concisely described as the black sheep of Hindu yoga.

For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given, said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.

The word "tantra" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.

Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism

File:YoungBrahminBoy.jpg

This young Indian brahmachari bears on his forehead the distinctive triple-line tilaka (made out of ash, referred to as vibhuti) and on his chest a rudraksha (eye of Rudra) and mala (rosary), both symbols of Lord Shiva.

Tika (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows)

Main article: Tilaka

The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolise the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." It is most commonly seen as a dot (or Bindu) worn by women, especially married women, and carries connotations of marraige and auspiciousness.

Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god Shiva. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent tika (tilaka) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three horizontal lines for Shiva. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow

Main article: Ahimsa

Ahimsa is a concept which advocates non-violence and a respect for all life. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads and in Raja Yoga, it is the first of the five yamas, or eternal vows/restraints of yoga.

Main article: Vegetarianism

A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain northerly states like Gujarat, where there is significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian - primarily lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic.

Main article: Sacred cow

Those Hindus who do eat meat predominantly abstain from beef, some even avoid the usage of leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied so heavily on the cow for dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (so the term gau mata). While most Hindus do not worship the cow, it still holds an honoured place in Hindu society. It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva's attendant is Nandi, the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the sacred nature of the cow (Sacred cow), it is no wonder that most Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef. Some semi-tribal Hindus and worshippers of Shakti sacrifice goats and buffalos on special occasions, but this practice is quickly disappearing as it is viewed by broad minded Hindus themselves as incompatible to the Hindu concepts of compassion and non-violence, ie., ahimsa.

Hindu symbolism

Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are quintessentially a part of its culture and representative of its general ethos:

Swastika

Swastika

Aum (Om)

Aum (ॐ) is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. Its contains a deep symbolic message; which is considered as divine primordial vibration of the Universe which represents all existence, encompassing all of nature into the One Ultimate Reality.

Swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble and auspicious symbol. It stands for satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used in ancient cultures around world and predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures still hold it to be auspicious, especially in India, in spite of the recent association with Nazism which used a modified version of this symbol.

Murtis (icons)

Main article: Murti

The dancing posture of Lord Śiva, known as the Nataraja, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal form of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.

Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (murti) which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines).

In a Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Worship of such Murtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practising Hindus also maintain a temple in their homes for worship and meditation.

Some of deities worshipped are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Swaminarayan, Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Skanda and Hanuman. Also, the Puranas list twenty-five avatara of Vishnu : Catursana, Narad, Varaha, Matsya, Yajna, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Hayasirsa, Hamsa, Prsnigarbha, Rsabha, Prithu, Narasimha , Kurma, Dhanvantari, Mohini, Vamana, Parasurama, Raghavendra, Vyasa, Balarama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.

Mantra

Main article: Mantra

Reciting mantras or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words were a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: "Hai Ram!"'.

The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda(see Sanskrit for pronunciation):

Devanagari: ॐ भूर्भुवस्वः | तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्

Transliteration: OM bhūr bhuva svaḥ | tat savitūr vareṇyam | bhargo devasya dhīmahi | dhiyo yo naḥ pra-codayāt

Translation: "May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the God / so may He stimulate our prayers."

It is considered one of the most sacred of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges) while chanting this mantra.

References

1. ^ Bhagavad Gita
2. Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
3. Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
4. "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online

See also

Hinduism

• Contemporary Hindu movements, Criticism of Hinduism
• Hinduism by country
• Hindu temples
• Hindu deities
• Hindu Calendar
• List of Hindu denominations
• List of Hindus
• List of Hinduism-related articles
• Sanskrit
• Vedic science
• Puja
• Hinduism and other religions

Related systems and religions

• Eastern philosophy
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• Sikhism
• Taoism

External links

• Atma Jyoti Ashram Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality.
• A Tribute To Hinduism - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
• Hinduism.co.za
• Authentic Hinduism Encyclopedia
• BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism
• Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism
• Heart of Hinduism - Based on the widely used UK schools text.
• Hindu.org
• Hindunet.org
• Hinduism and Hinduism resources
• International Society for Krishna Consciousness - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.
• Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda
• Sarve Samachar - Hindu news
• Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.
• VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online