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As the 19th century commenced, the country remained quasi-autonomous, although officially still an Ottoman province. Trade with Europe increased dramatically with western merchants arriving to establish businesses in the country. In 1861, Tunisia enacted the first constitution in the Arab world, but a move toward a modernizing [[republic]] was hampered by the poor economy and by political unrest. Loans made by foreigners to the government were becoming difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt; an international financial commission, with representatives from [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Italy]], took control over the economy.
As the 19th century commenced, the country remained quasi-autonomous, although officially still an Ottoman province. Trade with Europe increased dramatically with western merchants arriving to establish businesses in the country. In 1861, Tunisia enacted the first constitution in the Arab world, but a move toward a modernizing [[republic]] was hampered by the poor economy and by political unrest. Loans made by foreigners to the government were becoming difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt; an international financial commission, with representatives from [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Italy]], took control over the economy.


Initially, Italy was the country that demonstrated the most desire to have Tunisia as part of her own [[Sphere of influence]] having investment, citizens and geographic proximity as motivation.<ref>The establishment of an italian direct colonial rule was debated but at time it was not a popular concept in the national conscience and it was repeatedly rejected, italian ''Left wing'' (or "[[Sinistra storica]]") Prime Ministers as [[Agostino Depretis]] and [[Benedetto Cairoli]] were known opponents of any military adventure, in what was know as the "''Clean hands''" politics after the [[Congress of Berlin]].</ref> However this was rebuffed when Britain and France co-operated to prevent this during the years 1871 – 1878 ending in Britain supporting French influence in Tunisia in exchange for dominion over [[Modern_history_of_Cyprus#Cyprus_as_a_Protectorate|Cyprus]] and the french cooperation on the [[Urabi Revolt|egyptian matter]]. Britain was also interested in preventing both sides of the [[Strait of Sicily]] were controlled by one only power. France still had the issue of Italian influence (related to the huge colony of [[Tunisian Italians]] emigrated to Tunisia) and thus decided to find an excuse for a pre-emptive strike, italians called it the ''[[Schiaffo di Tunisi]]''.
Initially, Italy was the country that demonstrated the most desire to have Tunisia as part of her own [[Sphere of influence]] having investment, citizens and geographic proximity as motivation.<ref>The establishment of an italian direct colonial rule was debated but at time it was not a popular concept in the national conscience and it was repeatedly rejected, italian ''Left wing'' (or "[[Sinistra storica]]") Prime Ministers as [[Agostino Depretis]] and [[Benedetto Cairoli]] were known opponents of any military adventure, in what was know as the "''Clean hands''" politics after the [[Congress of Berlin]] (1878).</ref> However this was rebuffed when Britain and France co-operated to prevent this during the years 1871 – 1878 ending in Britain supporting French influence in Tunisia in exchange for dominion over [[Modern_history_of_Cyprus#Cyprus_as_a_Protectorate|Cyprus]] and the french cooperation on the [[Urabi Revolt|egyptian matter]]. Britain was also interested in preventing both sides of the [[Strait of Sicily]] were controlled by one only power. France still had the issue of Italian influence (related to the huge colony of [[Tunisian Italians]] emigrated to Tunisia) and thus decided to find an excuse for a pre-emptive strike, italians called it the ''[[Schiaffo di Tunisi]]''.


[[Image:Empire colonial français (1920).png|thumb|left|France's colonial empire at the time of French rule in Tunisia.]]
[[Image:Empire colonial français (1920).png|thumb|left|France's colonial empire at the time of French rule in Tunisia.]]

Revision as of 05:52, 1 September 2009

Template:HTIB History of French era Tunisia presents Tunisia under the French Protectorate (1881-1956). The French presence in Tunisia came decades after their occupation of Algeria to the west. Both of these regions were former possessions of the Ottoman Empire. Before the French arrived, Tunisia had begun a process of modernization and government reform, but financial difficulties mounted until a commission of European creditors was installed; the French government assumed Tunisia's international obligations. Major developments, including infrastructure, industry, and the financial system, were also undertaken by the French. The independence movement was already very active before World War I, and continued to gain strength, until its aim was achieved.

Weather in the north is temperate. Here Tunisia enjoys a Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters and hot dry summers, the terrain being wooded and fertile. The Medjerda river valley (Wadi Majardah, northeast of Tunis) is currently valuable farmland. Along the eastern coast, the central plains enjoy a moderate climate, less rainfall but with heavy dew; these coastlands are currently used for orchards and grazing. Near the mountainous Algerian border on the west rises Jebel ech Chambi, the highest point at 1544 meters. In the near south, an east-west belt of salt lakes cuts across the country. Further south lies the Sahara desert, including sand dunes of the Grand Erg Oriental.[1][2][3]

The Coat of Arms of the Republic of Tunisia

The present day Republic of Tunisia, al-Jumhuriyyah at-Tunisiyyah, has over ten million citizens, almost all of Arab-Berber descent. The Mediterranean Sea is to the north and east, Libya to the southeast, and Algeria to the west.[4] Tunis is the capital and the largest city (over 800,000); it is located near the ancient site of the city of Carthage.

Establishment

As the 19th century commenced, the country remained quasi-autonomous, although officially still an Ottoman province. Trade with Europe increased dramatically with western merchants arriving to establish businesses in the country. In 1861, Tunisia enacted the first constitution in the Arab world, but a move toward a modernizing republic was hampered by the poor economy and by political unrest. Loans made by foreigners to the government were becoming difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt; an international financial commission, with representatives from France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, took control over the economy.

Initially, Italy was the country that demonstrated the most desire to have Tunisia as part of her own Sphere of influence having investment, citizens and geographic proximity as motivation.[5] However this was rebuffed when Britain and France co-operated to prevent this during the years 1871 – 1878 ending in Britain supporting French influence in Tunisia in exchange for dominion over Cyprus and the french cooperation on the egyptian matter. Britain was also interested in preventing both sides of the Strait of Sicily were controlled by one only power. France still had the issue of Italian influence (related to the huge colony of Tunisian Italians emigrated to Tunisia) and thus decided to find an excuse for a pre-emptive strike, italians called it the Schiaffo di Tunisi.

France's colonial empire at the time of French rule in Tunisia.

Using the pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, France invaded with an army of about 36,000 which quickly advanced to Tunis and forced the Bey to make terms in the form of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id), which gave France control of Tunisian governance and making it a de-facto French protectorate.

In the spring of 1881, the French army occupied Tunisia, claiming that Tunisian troops had crossed the border to Algeria, France's primary colony in Northern Africa. Italy, also interested in Tunisia, protested, but did not risk a war with France. On May 12 of that year, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate with the signature of the treaty of Bardo by Muhammad III as-Sadiq.[6]

Economic progress

Map of Tunisia in 1902, showing new railroads and highways.

The French progressively assumed more of the important administrative positions, and by 1884 they supervised all Tunisian government bureaus dealing with finance, post, education, telegraph, public works and agriculture. They decided to guarantee the Tunisian debt, and then abolished the international finance commission. French settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945, occupying approximately one-fifth of the cultivated land. Roads, ports, railroads, and mines were developed. In rural areas the French administration strengthened the local officials (qa'ids) and weakened the independent tribes. An additional judicial system was established for Europeans but available generally, set-up without interfering with the existing Sharia courts, available as always for the legal matters of Tunisians.

Tunisian response

Many welcomed the progressive changes, but preferred to manage their own affairs. Kayr al-Din in the 1860s and 1870s had introduced modernizing reforms before the French occupation. Some of his companions later founded the weekly magazine al-Hadira in 1888. A more radical one al-Zahra ran from 1890 until suppressed in 1896; as was the Sabil al-Rashad of 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Tha'alibi, who was inspired by Muhammad 'Abduh of Cairo, among others. Bashir Sfar initiated the discussion group Khalduniya in 1896. 'Ali Bash Hamba founded the French language journal Tunisien to inform the French public of the Tunisian complaints, but only increased unrest. Tha'alibi founded the Arabic language Tunisien in 1909, to challenge Hamba from a Tunisian view point. In 1911 there were civil disturbances started within the universities. Hamba and Tha'alibi came together. A political party was begun, al-Ittihad al-Islami [The Evolutionist], which had pro-Ottoman leanings. Issues concerning a Muslim cemetery, the Jallaz, sparked large demonstrations which ended with martial law and the killing of many Tunisians in late 1911. Further demonstrations in 1912 led to the closing of the nationalist newspapers and the exiling of nationalist leadership.[7]

Organized nationalist sentiment among Tunisians, driven underground in 1912, resurfaced after the Great War. Encouragement came from many directions, e.g., the formation of the League of Nations in 1919. Nationalists established the Destour [Constitution] Party in 1920. Habib Bourguiba established and led its successor, the Neo-Destour Party, in 1934. French authorities later banned this new party. Oddly enough, support came from Tunisian Italians who were supporting the fascist government in Italy; later in 1942 Benito Mussolini obtained the liberation of Bourghiba from a Vichy jail. During World War II the nationalist movements struggled to survive.

World War II

During World War II, the French authorities in Tunisia supported the Vichy government which ruled France after its capitulation to Germany in 1940. After initial victories to the east the German General Erwin Rommel,[8] lacking supplies and reinforcements, in 1942 lost the decisive battle of al-Alamein (near Alexandria in Egypt) to the British General Bernard Montgomery. After learning of Allied landings in the west (Operation Torch), the Axis army retreated westward to Tunisia and set up defensive positions. The British following on his heels eventually broke these lines, although Rommel did have some early success against the "green" American troops advancing from the west, until the arrival of General George Patton who beat Rommel in battle. The fighting ended in May 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower (who earned trust by talking straight if not always clearly) stated that "far from governing a conquered country, we were attempting only to force a gradual widening of the base of government, with the final objective of turning all internal affairs over to popular control." Tunisia became a staging area for operations in the invasion of Sicily later that year.[9]

Map of modern Tunisia.

Independence

Following World War II the French managed to regain control of Tunisia as well as other administered territories in North Africa. However, the struggle for national independence continued and intensified.

The Neo-Destour Party reemerged under Habib Bourguiba. Yet with a lack of progress, violent resistance to French rule began in the mountains during 1954. The Tunisians coordinated with independence movements in Algeria and Morocco, although it was Tunisia that first became independent. Ultimately, the Neo-Destour Party was able to gain sovereignty for its people by maneuver and finesse.[10]

Reference notes

  1. ^ Kenneth J. Perkins, Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European Worlds (Boulder, Colorado: Westview 1986) at 1-5.
  2. ^ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge Univ. 1971) at 1-6.
  3. ^ The World Factbook on "Tunisia".
  4. ^ See map at end of article.
  5. ^ The establishment of an italian direct colonial rule was debated but at time it was not a popular concept in the national conscience and it was repeatedly rejected, italian Left wing (or "Sinistra storica") Prime Ministers as Agostino Depretis and Benedetto Cairoli were known opponents of any military adventure, in what was know as the "Clean hands" politics after the Congress of Berlin (1878).
  6. ^ Cooley, Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (New York 1965) at 193-196; Richard M. Brace, Morocco Algeria Tunisia (Prentice-Hall 1964) at 36-37.
  7. ^ Laroui, History of Maghrib at 314-315, 353, 357-361.
  8. ^ Rommel later joined the German military's plot to kill Hitler; Rommel's preference was to arrest him and try him for war crimes. Wm. L. Shirer, Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York 1960) at 1030-1032.
  9. ^ Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (New York 1948) at 137; Wm. L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich at 912-913.
  10. ^ Richard M. Brace, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia (Prentice-Hall 1964) at 39-52, 95-97.

See also

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