Foreign relations of the Holy See

The Holy See — which must be clearly distinguished from the city-state of Vatican City — has long been recognized as a subject of international law and as an active participant in international relations. It remains such, and indeed one observer has said that its interaction with the world has, in the period since Second World War, been at the highest point it has ever had.

While some non-governmental organizations have advocated against the participation of the Holy See in multilateral fora, its status as a full subject of international law, with a legal standing similar to that of a state, is not in question. In fact, its status within international organizations has been confirmed and raised further, as the United Nations General Assembly did with its Resolution 58/314 of 16 July 2004.

History

Since medieval times the episcopal see of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign entity. Earlier, there were papal representatives to the Emperors of Constantinople, beginning in 453, but they were not thought of as ambassadors In the eleventh century the sending of papal representatives to princes, on a temporary or permanent mission, became frequent. In the fifteenth century it became customary for states to accredit permanent resident ambassadors to the Pope in Rome. The first permanent papal nunciature was established in 1500 in Venice. Their number grew in the course of the sixteenth century to thirteen, while internuncios (representatives of second rank) were sent to less-powerful states. After enjoying a brilliant period in the first half of the seventeenth century, papal diplomacy declined after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, being assailed especially by royalists and Gallicans, and the number of functioning nuncios was reduced to two in the time of Napoleon, although in the same period, in 1805, Prussia became the first Protestant state to send an ambassador to Rome. There was a revival after the Congress of Vienna, which, while laying down that, in general, the order of precedence between ambassadors would be determined by the date of their arrival, allowed special precedence to be given to the nuncio, by which he would always be the dean of the diplomatic corps.

In spite of the extinction of the Papal States in 1870, and the consequent loss of territorial sovereignty, and in spite of some uncertainty among jurists as to whether it could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters, the Holy See continued in fact to exercise the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives, maintaining relations with states that included the major powers of Russia, Prussia and Austria-Hungary. Countries continued to receive nuncios as diplomatic representatives of full rank, and where, in accordance with the decision of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Nuncio was not only a member of the Diplomatic Corps but its Dean, this arrangement continued to be accepted by the other ambassadors.

With the First World War and its aftermath the number of states with diplomatic relations with the Holy See increased. For the first time since relations were broken between the Pope and Queen Elizabeth I of England, a British diplomatic mission to the Holy See was opened in 1914. The result was that, instead of diminishing, the number of diplomats accredited to the Holy See grew from 16 in 1871 to 27 in 1929, when it again acquired territorial sovereignty with the founding of the State of Vatican City.

In the same period, the Holy See concluded a total of 29 concordats and other agreements with states, including Austro-Hungary in 1881, Russian in 1882 and 1907, France in 1886 and 1923. Two of these concordats were registered at the League of Nations at the request of the countries involved.

While bereft of territorial sovereignty, the Holy See also accepted requests to act as arbitrator between countries, including a dispute between Germany and Spain over the Caroline Islands.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 and the founding of the Vatican City State was not followed by any great immediate increase in the number of states with which the Holy See had official relations. This came later, especially after the Second World War.

Present situation

Further information: Diplomatic missions of the Vatican

Foreign relations with the Holy See

  Diplomatic relations

  Other relations

  No relations

The Holy See maintains formal diplomatic relations with 177 sovereign states, the European Union, and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta; 69 of the diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome, although those countries then have two embassies in the same city, since, by agreement between the Holy See and Italy, the same person cannot be accredited simultaneously to both. Dual accreditation with a country other than Italy is acceptable, whether the mission is situated in Rome or elsewhere. The Holy See also has relations of a special nature with Russia (Mission with an Ambassador) and the Palestine Liberation Organization (Office with a Director). The Holy See maintains 179 permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 73 are non-residential, so that it has in all 106 concrete missions, some of which are accredited not only to the country in which they are situated, but also to one or more other countries or international organizations.

There are sixteen internationally recognized states with which the Holy See does not have relations. Nine are Islamic (Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Comoros, Malaysia, the Maldives, Mauritania, Oman, and Somalia), four are communist (the People's Republic of China, North Korea, Laos, and Vietnam), and the remaining three are Bhutan, Burma, and Tuvalu. The Islamic states that have diplomatic relations with the Holy See are more numerous than those that do not.

The Holy See is the only European subject of international law to have diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). It held official relations with China since 1942, and when victory in the Chinese Civil War went to the Communist Party of China, the Holy See's diplomatic representative chose not to withdraw to Taipei with the Kuomintang government. However, the Communist government expelled him, and the Holy See's diplomatic mission was then transferred to Taipei. When in 1971 the seat of China at the United Nations was adjudicated to the government of the People's Republic of China, the Holy See downgraded its mission in Taipei: since then, it has been headed only by a chargé d'affaires. Talks between the mainland government and the Holy See on diplomatic relations have been reported to be ongoing, with the main issue being the treatment of Catholics in mainland China. The government rejects the Holy See's spiritual authority over these, and uses the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association as a means to exclude it.

The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the Secretariat of State (headed by the Cardinal Secretary of State), through the Section for Relations with States.

International organizations

The Holy See is especially active in international organizations and is a member of the following groups:

• International Grains Council (IGC)
• International Committee of Military Medicine (ICMM)
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)
• Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
• Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO)*
• Universal Postal Union (UPU)
• International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT)
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
• United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

* Note: In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in order to “give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself.”

The Holy See is also a permanent observer of the following international organizations:

• Council of Europe in Strasbourg
• International Organization for Migration (IOM)
• International Labour Organization (ILO)
• International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
• Latin Union (LU)
• Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington
• Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
• United Nations*
• UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP)
• United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS)
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
• World Tourism Organization (WToO)
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
• World Health Organization (WHO)
• World Food Programme (WFP)

* Note: the Holy See has been a permanent observer in the United Nations since 1964 and, in July 2004, gained all the rights of full membership except voting. According to Archbishop Celestino Migliore, Holy See Permanent Observer, “We have no vote because this is our choice.” He added that the Holy See considers that its current status “is a fundamental step that does not close any path for the future. The Holy See has the requirements defined by the UN statute to be a member state and, if in the future it wished to be so, this resolution would not impede it from requesting it.”

The Holy See is an observer on an informal basis of the following groups:

• Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO)
• International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (ISDR, 1990s)
• International Maritime Organization (IMO)
• International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
• United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS)
• World Meteorological Organization in Geneva (WMO)

The Holy See sends a delegate to the Arab League in Cairo. It is also a guest of honour to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

International treaties

The Holy See is a state-party to numerous international treaties:

Multilateral Treaties

Treaty	Date of signature	Date of ratification, accession or aceptance
1949 Protocol on Road Signs and Signals		1 Oct 1956
1958 Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards		14 May 1975
1966 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination	21 Nov 1966	1 May 1969
1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances	21 Feb 1971	7 Jan 1976
1972 Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs	25 Mar 1972	7 Jan 1976
1976 Protocol to the Agreement on the Importation of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Materials of 22 November 1950		22 Feb 1980
1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child	20 Apr 1990	20 Apr 1990
1992 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction	14 Jan 1993	12 May 1999
1992 Amendment to article 8 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination		14 Mar 2002
1995 Amendment to article 43 (2) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child		15 Aug 1996
1995 Grains Trade Convention	20 Jun 1995	28 Jun 1995
1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction	4 Dec 1997	17 Feb 1998
2000 Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict	10 Oct 2000	24 Oct 2001
2000 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography	10 Oct 2000	24 Oct 2001

Relationship with Vatican City

Although the Holy See is closely associated with Vatican City, the independent territory over which the Holy See is sovereign, the two entities are separate and distinct.

The State of the Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to "ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs" (quotations from the treaty). Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran, the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a "minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory".

The Holy See, not Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states and participates in international organizations. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican City.

Under the terms of the Lateran Treaty, the Holy See has extraterritorial authority over 23 sites in Rome and five Italian sites outside of Rome, including the Pontifical Palace at Castel Gandolfo. The same authority is extended under international law over the Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See in a foreign country.

Alleged conditions for acceptance as ambassadors

The Holy See only accepts foreign ambassadors that meet the moral requirements of the Church, in what it calls "gospel diplomacy". Abortion, divorce and homosexuality are all taboo in the Church's diplomatic norms.

Massimo Franco, author of "Parallel Empires", asserted in April 2009 that the Obama administration had put forward three candidates for consideration but each of them have been deemed insufficiently pro-life by the Vatican. This claim was denied by the Holy See's spokesman Federico Lombardi, and was dismissed by Thomas Patrick Melady, former United States Ambassador to the Holy See, as being in conflict with diplomatic practice. Vatican sources said that it is not the practice to vet the personal ideas of those who are proposed as ambassadors to the Holy See, though in the case of candidates who are Catholics and who are living with someone, their marital status is taken into account. Divorced people who are not Catholics are in fact accepted, provided their marriage situation is in accord with the rules of their own religion.

In September 2008, French and Italian press reports likewise claimed that the Holy See had refused the required diplomatic approval of several candidates proposed by Paris for the job, which has been vacant since the previous ambassador died in December 2007.

According to press accounts in Argentina in January 2008, the country's nominee as ambassador to the Holy See, Alberto Iribarne, a Catholic, was rejected on the grounds that he was living with a woman other than the wife from whom he was divorced.

Bilateral relations

Europe

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Estonia		See Foreign relations of Estonia
European Union		See European Union – Holy See relations Many of the founders of the European Union were inspired by Catholic ideals, notably Robert Schumann, Alcide de Gasperi, Konrad Adenauer, and Jean Monnet.
France		See France – Holy See relations Holy See–France relations are very ancient and have existed since the fifth century AD, and have been durable to the extent that France is sometimes called the eldest daughter of the Church. Areas of cooperation between Paris and the Holy See have traditionally included education, health care, the struggle against poverty and international diplomacy. Before the establishment of the welfare state, Church involvement was evident in many sectors of French society. Today, Paris's international peace initiatives are often in line with those of the Holy See, who favors dialogue on a global level.
Greece	1980	See Greece – Holy See relations The Holy See set up its Apostolic Nunciature to Greece in Athens in 1980. The Greek ambassador to the Holy See resided at first in Paris, where he was concurrently accredited to France; but in 1988 a separate Greek embassy to the Holy See, situated in Rome, was set up. In May 2001, Pope John Paul II made a visit of pilgrimage to Greece.
Ireland		See Holy See – Ireland relations The majority of Irish people are Roman Catholic. The Holy See has an embassy in Dublin. Ireland has an embassy to the Holy See.
Italy		See Holy See – Italy relations Due to the size of the Vatican City State, embassies accredited to the Holy See are based on Italian territory. Treaties signed between Italy and the Vatican City State permit such embassages. Like the Embassy of Italy, the Embassy of Andorra to the Holy See is also based on its home territory.
Lithuania	1927	The Holy See has a nunciature in Vilnius. Lithuania has an embassy in Rome. Pope Starts Lithuania Visit, First to an Ex-Soviet Land
Malta	1965	The Holy See has a nunciature in Rabat. Malta has an embassy in Rome. Pope Arrives in Malta
Romania	1920	See Holy See – Romania relations The Holy See has an embassy in Bucharest. Romania has an embassy to the Vatican.
Russia		See Holy See – Russia relations Holy See–Russia relations are largely linked to ecumenical relations with the Russian Orthodox Church. Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and President Vladimir Putin have both advocated an easing of previously tense relations between Russia and the Vatican, and therefore ties have slightly improved under the papacy of Pope Benedict.
Serbia	1919-03	See Holy See – Serbia relations The Holy See has an embassy in Belgrade. Serbia has an embassy to the Holy See in Rome. The Holy See has decided to withhold recognition of Kosovo as part of an agreement with Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church, and this has led to a warming of Vatican-Serbia relations. Otherwise, relations have often been difficult because of the Holy See's good relations with Croatia in difficult moments of Serbia's history. Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the bilateral relation with the Holy See
Spain	1530	See Holy See – Spain relations The Holy See has a nunciature in Madrid. Spain has an embassy in Rome.
Turkey	1868	See Holy See – Turkey relations The Holy See has a nunciature in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Rome.
Ukraine	1992	The Holy See has a nunciature in Kiev. Ukraine has an embassy in Rome. Pope's Ukraine visit stirs protest
United Kingdom	1914	See Holy See – United Kingdom relations Full relations were recognised in 1982 when Pope John Paul II visited the UK. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom became the first ever British monarch to visit the Vatican in 1980.

Americas

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Argentina	1940-04-17	See Argentina – Holy See relations Argentina has an embassy to the Holy See. The Holy See has an embassy in Buenos Aires. Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations and Cult: list of bilateral treaties with the Holy See (in Spanish only)
Canada		See Canada – Holy See relations Although the Roman Catholic Church has been territorially established in Canada since the founding of New France in the early 17th century, Holy See–Canada relations were only officially established under the papacy of Paul VI in the 1960s.
Mexico		See Holy See – Mexico relations The Vatican assigned an Apostolic Nuncio to Mexico in 1904. The Holy See has a nunciature in Mexico City. Mexico has an embassy in Rome. As of 1990 about 90 percent of Mexico's 86 million people declared themselves Roman Catholics. In 1992 after more than 130 years the Mexican Government and the Holy See reestablished formal diplomatic relations and restored civil rights to the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico.
United States		See Holy See – United States relations Holy See priorities for 2008 include freedom of religion, inter-religious dialogue (particularly with the Muslim world), ecumenism, protection for the traditional family, and peace (particularly for the Middle East). Pope Benedict XVI has also publicly expressed concern over the issue of climate change, describing the protection of the environment as a moral responsibility to safeguard God's creation. The principal U.S. official is Ambassador Miguel H. Diaz. The Holy See is represented by Archbishop Pietro Sambi, who assumed office on December 17, 2005. The U.S. Embassy to the Holy See is located in Rome in the Villa Domiziana. The Nunciature to the United States is located in Washington, D.C. at 3339 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Venezuela		See Holy See – Venezuela relations Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1869. The Holy See has a nunciature in Caracas. Venezuela has an embassy in Rome.

Africa

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Algeria		See Algeria – Holy See relations During the Algerian War of 1954-1962 the Holy See accepted the occupation of Algeria by France, and did not speak out in favor of Algerian independence despite pleas from the Algerian rebels to mediate. After Algeria became independent, Algeria maintained diplomatic ties with the Holy See and allowed Roman Catholic priests to continue ministering to the remaining Catholics in Algeria.
Madagascar	1960	The Holy See has a nunciature in Antananarivo. Madagascar has an embassy in Rome. Pope prays for peace in Madagascar
Rwanda		The Holy See has an nunciature in Kigali. Rwanda has an embassy to the Holy See. Relations between the two States have been strained since the Rwanda genocide. Many bishops were under the ideological influence of the previous Hutu nationalist government, and the government of Paul Kagame has tried to purge the episcopacy of hostile elements. Priests that participated in the killings behaved in a way no different from the majority of the population, a phenomenon which has led to a grave collective and spiritual guilt, and has led to the the growth of Evangelical churches and Islamic organizations. In part, this has been attributed to an ethnic-based liberation theology, which was denounced by the Holy See in the 1970s and 1980s.
Sudan	1969	See Holy See – Sudan relations The Holy See has a nunciature in Khartoum. Sudan has an embassy in Rome. Pope urges Sudan to end military campaign in Darfur

Middle East

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Iran	1954	See Holy See – Iran relations The two countries have had formal diplomatic relations since 1954, since the pontificate of Pius XII, and have been maintained during Islamic revolution. Iran has a large diplomatic corps at the Vatican with only the Dominican Republic having more diplomats accredited to the Holy See. In 2008 relations between Iran and the Holy See were "warming", and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad "said the Vatican was a positive force for justice and peace" when he met with the Papal nuncio to Iran, Archbishop Jean-Paul Gobel.
Iraq
Israel	1993	See Holy See – Israel relations Holy See–Israel relations have officially existed since 1993 with the adoption of the fundamental agreement between the two parties. However, relations remain tense because of the non-fulfillment of the accords giving property rights and tax exemptions to the Church.
Jordan	1994	See Holy See – Jordan relations The Holy See has a nunciature in Amman. Jordan has an embassy in Rome. The Holy See has maintained comparatively good relations with Jordan. The name of the country comes from the Jordan River, which is significant to Christians because it was the place where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. Various Christian clerics in the Arab world have a Jordanian background, such as Maroun Lahham in Tunisia and Fouad Twal in Israel/Palestine.
Kuwait	1969	The Holy See has a nunciature in Safat. Kuwait has an embassy in Rome. Vicariate of Kuwait
Lebanon	1947	See Holy See – Lebanon relations The Holy See has a nunciature in Harissa. Lebanon has an embassy in Rome.
Saudi Arabia		There have been some important high-level meetings between Saudi and Vatican officials in order to discuss issues and organize dialogue between religions.
Syria	1762	The Holy See has a nunciature in Damascus. Syria has an embassy in Rome. At present, the Holy See has comparatively good relations with Syria. It has sought to foster ecumenism between rival Christian factions in Antioch and to ensure the survival of age-old Christian communities in the country. The declaration Nostra Aetate has made possible inter-faith dialogue and cooperation with Syrian Muslims. Some Vatican leaders have also sought to foster greater political independence for Lebanon, which has been tied to Syria since the end of the Lebanese civil war. This call for Lebanese independence has traditionally been resisted by Syrian leaders. Assad will attend John Paul II's funeral

Rest of world

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
China	1942	See China – Holy See relations The ROC, commonly known as Taiwan, has an embassy to the Holy See in Rome The Holy See maintains an Apostolic Nunciature in Taipei, but without a Nuncio: a chargé d'affaires carries on the business of the diplomatic mission. The Holy See is the only sovereign entity in Europe which has diplomatic ties with the Republic of China, which, unlike the People's Republic of China, does not demand as a condition for such ties explicit recognition as the sole legitimate government of China.
India	1881	Holy See–India relations have officially existed since 1881, when the nunciature was establised during the papacy of Leo XIII.
Indonesia	1947	The Holy See has a nunciature in Jakarta. Indonesia has an embassy in Rome. Pope Urges Indonesia To Ensure Christians Full Religious Freedom
Malaysia		See Holy See – Malaysia relations There are no diplomatic relations between the two.
New Zealand	1948	The Holy See has a nunciature in Wellington. New Zealand has an embassy in Rome. In 1984, John Paul II gave a speech to the ambassador of New Zealand at the Holy See. He later visited the country in 1986.
Pakistan	1961	The Holy See has a nunciature in Islamabad. Pakistan also has a representative embassy, situated in Rome. Pope only wants inter-faith harmony, Pakistani bishops say
Palestinian Authority		An Apostolic Delegation (a non-diplomatic mission of the Holy See) denominated "Jerusalem and Palestine" has existed since 11 February 1948. The Palestine Liberation Organization has non-diplomatic but official relations with the Holy See, with an office in Rome. The Holy See, along with many other states, supports a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine.
Vietnam		See Holy See – Vietnam relations Diplomatic relations have not been established with Vietnam. An Apostolic Delegation (a papal mission accredited to the Catholic Church in the country but not officially to the Government) still exists on paper and as such is listed in the Annuario Pontificio; but since the end of the Vietnam War admittance of representatives to staff it has not been permitted. Temporary missions to discuss with the Government matters of common interest are sent every year or two.

Bibliography

Cardinale, Hyginus Eugene (1976). The Holy See and the International Order. Colin Smythe, (Gerrards Cross). ISBN 0-900675-60-8.