Semi-periphery countries

In world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries (sometimes referred to as just the semi-periphery) are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are in the process of transforming from periphery countries into core countries. They are regions that mix both core and peripheral forms of organization and are spatially located not only between core and peripheral regions but also between two or more competing core regions. They are regions in which mediating activities linking core and peripheral areas take place and regions in which institutional features are between those forms found in adjacent core and peripheral areas. Generally stated, semiperipheral areas are likely to generate new institutional forms that transform system structures and modes of accumulation. These changes often lead to the upward mobility of these same semiperipheral actors in the core/periphery hierarchy. The semiperiphery is fertile ground for social, organizational, and technical innovation and has an advantageous location for the establishment of new centers of power. Semi-periphery is, however, more than a categorical description, as it also serves as an analytical tool to interpret change.

The World Systems Theory describes the semi-periphery as a key structural element in a world economy. The semi-periphery functions to play a vital role comparative to that of middle trading groups in an empire. The term semi-periphery originated in the thirteenth century, and continues to present day, as Abu Lughod writes in her description of the first true world system.

Today, the semi-periphery is generally industrialized. Semi-periphery countries make several contributions in manufacturing and the exportation of a variety of goods. They are marked by above average land mass, as exemplified by China, India, Mexico, Iran, and more. Bigger land mass typically means an increased market size and share. Semi-periphery nations are not all large though, as smaller countries such as Italy,Israel,Poland, and Greece exist within the semi-periphery. Semi-periphery countries serve both as a forum of interaction between the core and periphery and as a source of political and social innovation and change.

Function

File:China fuels 1983.jpg

Energy and mineral resources

The semi periphery is needed to stabilize the world system. It absorbs the shock between the low-income periphery states and the high-income core states. Semi-periphery countries act as a peripheral zone for core countries and as a core to periphery states. They also serve as a "political buffer zone" in which they are the exploited and exploiters. These areas had been either core-areas of earlier versions of a given world-economy or peripheral areas that were later promoted, so to speak, as a result of the changing geopolitics of an expanding world-economy.

Semi-periphery nations are a necessary structural element in a world-trade system. They serve to let off the steam of the global political system. In other words, the semi-periphery can serve to alleviate the political pressures that the core can exert upon the periphery and the political unrest that the periphery can direct back at the core. On the other hand, the semi-periphery can find itself excluded from the political systems, as it lies just outside of the bounds of political arena of the core states.

In terms of contribution to industry and economy, contemporary nations of the semi-periphery are semi-industrialized. Semi-periphery countries are major exporters of minerals and agricultural goods. They are often focused in manufacturing and exportation of industrial goods and commodities. While these advances separate the semi-periphery from the periphery, they lack the power and the economic dominance of core nations and still have a lot of unmanaged poverty, contributing to their position beneath the core.Semi-periphery countries are important contributors to the world economy for the reasons mentioned here and because they tend to have above average land mass, meaning that they are host to an above average market. A primary example is China, a country with not only a large area but with a booming population.

Origin in sociological theory

World-systems theorists originally used only the two categories - periphery countries and core countries, but a need for an "in between" category became quickly apparent. Hence, the semi-periphery category was introduced for societies that have moved away from the periphery but have not became core; in other words, the category describes societies that remained dependent, and to some extent underdeveloped, despite having achieved significant levels of industrialization. Semi-periphery countries are tied into dynamic world-systems that focus on the reliance of poor nations upon the wealthy, a concept known as the dependency theory.

History and development

13th century

Ancient silk road trade routes across Eurasia

This era of human history found the semi-periphery concentrated in the area stretching from the Middle East to China, including India and the Mongol Empire. This was the first time in history that the peripheries and semi-peripheries of the world became connected and involved in the trade of the world, both with cores and with each other. Through a lucrative trade system, including heavy taxing of goods traveling through their borders, they were able to maintain a steady stream of wealth, becoming the driving forces of economic change throughout this time period. This is seen through Janet Abu Lughod's description of the changes when these areas were all conquered by one power. In addition, a heavy emphasis on defense and border security, particularly among the Mongols, allowed them to be fairly impenetrable trade obstacles. Geography also played a role, as seen in India's development of an impressive maritime industry. Because of it's position along a convenient route through the Indian Ocean, India established its role as a "hinge" betwen the East and West. Through their positions within the world trade system, semi-peripheries in the Middle East became crucially important in connecting the cities of Chinese and Indian cores with the fledgling cities of Europe, as well as serving as key points between other, more major core cities in the region, such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Aden.

1875-1914

A ration party of the Royal Irish Rifles in a communication trench.

The West represented both the core and the semi-periphery, as Europe dominated 80% of the world's market share. The rest of the world was a diverse periphery, with the exception of only some nations, like Japan. As expansionism continued, new core nations emerged, such as the Britain, Germany, and the United States, while old cores such as Spain and Portugal faded to the semi-periphery. The growth of the power of the common man led to an expansion of thought concerning democracy, communism, and revolution, which pervaded the weaker semi-periphery nations overcome with civil distress. In some cases, this led to the weakening of the nations, such as the violent revolution in France. This contributed to the adoption of totalitarian leaders, as seen in Germany and France. The major factors contributing to world war were the conflicts and power struggles taking place between the three classes of nations in the global system. Nations considered part of the semi-periphery felt oppressed by the stronger, larger core nations.

Today

  Advanced economies

  Emerging and developing economies (not least developed)

  Emerging and developing economies (least developed)

Classifications by the IMF and the UN

In today's global hierarchy, some states are transitioning upward while others are moving downward in terms of status and influence. Former colonial powers no longer exercise control over an international domain and are instead mostly relegated to their core; for example, former European world powers do not exert influence over colonial outposts in the Americas, Africa, or Asia, but rather have consolidated their power in the form of the European Union. The new leading powers are mostly non-European (United States, China, Japan). Outside of these developed countries are countries (see list below) that are considered semi-periphery and are both dominant and dominated within economic, political, and social realms. These middle powers are a combination of nations that have emerged as a result of the fragmentation of the Soviet Union and nations that have risen because of their possession of resources in high demand, like oil in Saudi Arabia. While these nations are by no means on the level of the stated world powers, they are able to exert influence over the weaker nations of the impoverished Fourth World.

Other terms used to describe semi-periphery countries include sub-imperial and semi-industrial. Wallerstein identifies three ways by which countries can emerge from the periphery into the semi-periphery. Countries with a large market and room for industrial growth, like Brazil, South Africa, and Mexico, and countries with valuable energy resources, like Iran and Saudi Arabia, can utilize the strategy of seizing the chance. The strategy of promotion by invitation can be utilized by countries willing to be open to foreign governmental and regional administrative centers. Examples of past countries to utilize this strategy are the capitalist regimes in Africa like Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Zaire, Senegal, and Ivory Coast. These countries use dependent development to integrate into the world economy and establish local dominance. Outside of these strategies is that of self-reliance, a basic theory that as some countries grow, others will decline. Many countries in Africa and Latin America have exhibited the qualities of a sub-imperial or semi-industrial power.

Wallerstein examines the role of semi-periphery countries during a period of economic downturn, certainly relevant in the current global economy. To redefine core and periphery countries in an economic sense, core countries are characterized by advanced technology, high profits, high wages, and diversified production while periphery countries have less technology, low profits, low wages, and less diversified production. Semi-periphery countries fall in the middle of these spectra, and their unique political and social structure place them in a position where they can best take advantage of economic downturns.

These economic downturns occur because of increased supply and decreased demand, which combine to create a shift in surplus and power to the semi-periphery, which takes advantage of the situation by expanding control of their home markets and the surrounding periphery countries at the expense of core countries. The underlying reason for this shift in power lies in the basic economic principle of scarcity. As long as core countries maintain scarcities of their goods, they can select customers from semi-periphery and periphery countries that are competing over them. When excess supply occurs, the core countries are the ones competing over a smaller market. This competition allows semi-periphery nations to select from among core countries rather than vice versa when making decisions about commodity purchases, manufacturing investments, and sales of goods, shifting the balance of power to the semi-periphery. While in general there is a power shift from core to semi-periphery in times of economic struggles, there are few examples of semi-peripheral countries transitioning to core status. To accomplish this, semi-peripheral nations must not only take advantage of weaker core countries but must also exploit any existing advantages over other semi-periphery nations. How well they exploit these advantages determines their arrangement within the semi-periphery class.

Effects

A ballot box

The semi-periphery nations of the world have played an important role to world trade and interaction since early periods of globalized trade. This "middle ground" between the very powerful cores and the backwaters of the far periphery allowed those two zones to interact with greater ease. For example, during the 13th Century World System, the semi-periphery areas around Europe's Mediterranean Coast facilitated trade between the peripheries of the more manufacturing based Northern Europe and the cores of India and China. John Markoff, a sociologist at the University of Pittsburgh also notes that political developments, particularly in the advancement of democracy, originate in the semi-periphery. He notes that innovations in democracy came from the semi-periphery rather than the more established, stable core nations, where profit discourages great reform, or the extremely poor periphery where instability makes reform too dangerous to attempt. It has been within semi-periphery nations where democratic reforms like the expansion of suffrage and the institution of the secret ballot have been implemented.

Examples

World map indicating a Human Development Index (2008 Update)

Developed   0.950 and Over   0.900–0.949   0.850–0.899   0.800–0.849

Developing   0.750–0.799   0.700–0.749   0.650–0.699   0.600–0.649   0.550–0.599   0.500–0.549

Under-developed   0.450–0.499   0.400–0.449   0.350–0.399   under 0.350   not available

The following are semi-periphery countries according to Wallerstein.

Brazil	China	India	Italy	Greece
Malaysia	Poland	Mexico	Norway	Indonesia
Singapore	India	South Korea	Spain	Norway
Taiwan	Argentina	Venezuela	Portugal	Finland
Algeria	Egypt	Saudi Arabia	Nigeria	Zaire
Turkey	Iran	Israel

See also

• Core-periphery
• Dependency theory
• Developing country
• Second World

Further reading

• Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall, Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.The Semi Periphery: The Seedbed of Change.Chapter 5 of C.
• Kaplan, David H.; Wheeler, James O.; Holloway, James O. Urban Geography. York, PA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004., pg. 412.
• Kees Terlouw, The Regional Reography of the World-system:External Arena,Periphery,Semi-Periphery,Core.(Utrecht:KNAG,1992),pg 36-45
• Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press, 1976, pp. 229-233.
• Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974).
• Semi-Peripheral Countries and The Contemporary World Crisis, Immanuel Wallerstein, Theory and Society,Vol.3, No.4.(Winter,1976),pp 461–483.
• Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 17, page 390.