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WHR is used as a measurement of [[obesity]], which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions.
WHR is used as a measurement of [[obesity]], which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions.


A WHR of 0.7 for women and 0.9 for men have been shown to correlate strongly with general [[health]] and [[fertility]]. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of [[estrogen]] and are less susceptible to major diseases such as [[diabetes]], cardiovascular disorders and ovarian cancers.<ref name='LiveScience'> {{Cite journal| first= | last=| coauthors=| contribution=The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love| title=The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love| editor-first=| editor-last=| coeditors=| publisher=| place=| pages=| date=| year=| id= | contribution-url=http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html| format=| accessdate=2007-09-01 }}</ref> Men with WHRs around 0.9, similarly, have been shown to be more healthy and fertile with less [[prostate cancer]] and [[testicular cancer]].<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Men's preferences for women's profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies. | date= | publisher= | url =http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513805000620 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-01 | language = }}</ref> Studies show that 80 percent of women over the age of 18 have a WHR of at least 0.9{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}. This is a 40 percent increase since 2002, and it keeps increasing.
A WHR of 0.7 for women and 0.9 for men have been shown to correlate strongly with general [[health]] and [[fertility]]. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of [[estrogen]] and are less susceptible to major diseases such as [[diabetes]], cardiovascular disorders and ovarian cancers.<ref name='LiveScience'> {{Cite journal| first= | last=| coauthors=| contribution=The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love| title=The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love| editor-first=| editor-last=| coeditors=| publisher=| place=| pages=| date=| year=| id= | contribution-url=http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html| format=| accessdate=2007-09-01 }}</ref> Men with WHRs around 0.9, similarly, have been shown to be more healthy and fertile with less [[prostate cancer]] and [[testicular cancer]].<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Men's preferences for women's profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies. | date= | publisher= | url =http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513805000620 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-01 | language = }}</ref>


WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people than waist circumference or [[body mass index]] (BMI).<ref>Article adapted by Medical News Today from original press release. [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=49218 "Waist-hip Ratio Should Replace Body Mass Index As Indicator Of Mortality Risk In Older People"], ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition''. August 12, 2006.</ref> If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold.<ref>[http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/issue?volume=366&issue=9497''Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study.''] The Lancet, November 5, 2005</ref> The [[body fat percentage]] is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist-hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have vastly different body mass indices but the same waist-hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but vastly different waist-hip ratios.
WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people than waist circumference or [[body mass index]] (BMI).<ref>Article adapted by Medical News Today from original press release. [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=49218 "Waist-hip Ratio Should Replace Body Mass Index As Indicator Of Mortality Risk In Older People"], ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition''. August 12, 2006.</ref> If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold.<ref>[http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/issue?volume=366&issue=9497''Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study.''] The Lancet, November 5, 2005</ref> The [[body fat percentage]] is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist-hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have vastly different body mass indices but the same waist-hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but vastly different waist-hip ratios.

Revision as of 15:25, 14 December 2009

The waist-hip ratio in women is often considered a key feature in physical attractiveness. Measured directly from this image, the frontal WHR of the model in this image is approximately 0.69.
Men generally have much less pronounced hips, relative to waist size.

Waist-hip ratio or Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is the ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. It is calculated by measuring the smaller circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button, and dividing by the hip circumference at its widest part of the buttocks or hip. The ratio is applied both to women and men.

Indicator of health

The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of the health of a person, and the risk of developing serious health conditions. Research shows that people with "apple-shaped" bodies (with more weight around the waist) face more health risks than those with "pear-shaped" bodies who carry more weight around the hips. (See female body shapes)

WHR is used as a measurement of obesity, which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions.

A WHR of 0.7 for women and 0.9 for men have been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders and ovarian cancers.[1] Men with WHRs around 0.9, similarly, have been shown to be more healthy and fertile with less prostate cancer and testicular cancer.[2]

WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people than waist circumference or body mass index (BMI).[3] If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold.[4] The body fat percentage is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist-hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have vastly different body mass indices but the same waist-hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but vastly different waist-hip ratios.

The ideal ratio for women is considered to be about 0.7.[5]

Other studies have found that waist circumference, not WHR, to be a good indicator of cardiovascular risk factors,[6] body fat distribution,[7] and hypertension in type 2 diabetes.[8]

Measure of attractiveness

The concept and significance of WHR as an indicator of attractiveness was first theorized by evolutionary psychologist Dr. Devendra Singh at the University of Texas at Austin in 1993.[9][10] Singh argued that the WHR was a more consistent oestrogen marker than the BHR studied at King's College, London by Dr Glenn Wilson in the 1970s.[11][12]

Some researchers have found that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) is a significant measure of female attractiveness. Women with a 0.7 WHR are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures.[13] Beauty icons such as Marilyn Monroe and Sophia Loren have or had ratios close to 0.7, even though they have different weights and heights. In other cultures, preferences appear to vary according to some studies,[14] ranging from 0.6 in China,[15] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[16][17][18] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[19][20]

Note: In the studies referenced above, only frontal WHR preferences differed significantly among racial and cultural groups. When actual (circumferential) measurements were made, the preferred WHR tended toward the expected value of 0.7 universally. The apparent differences are most likely due to the different body fat storage patterns in different population groups. For example, women of African descent tend to store their fat in their buttocks more than women of other groups. Therefore, their WHR as viewed from the front may appear to be much greater than when viewed from the side. The inverse may be true of women of East Asian ancestry. Therefore, African men appear to be more likely to value a woman's small WHR in profile and Asian men may tend to place more value on an exaggerated frontal WHR compared to European men.

It appears that men are more influenced by female waist-size than hip-size :

"Hip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy. Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status ... in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about fecundity and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female's attractiveness."

— Journal of Biological Psychology, [21]

To enhance their perception of attractiveness, some women may artificially alter their apparent WHR. The methods include the use of a corset to reduce the waist size and hip and buttock padding to increase the apparent size of the hips and buttocks. In an earlier attempt to quantify attractiveness, corset and girdle manufacturers of the 20th century used a calculation called hip spring[22] (or hip-spring or hipspring). Hip spring is calculated by subtracting the waist measurement from the hip measurement. However, this calculation fell into disuse because it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a hip spring of 10 inches would likely be considered quite attractive for an average-sized adult woman, but a child or petite woman with the same number would more likely be seen as malnourished.

Intelligence

While the study is still being reviewed, there is a moderate correlation between WHR and intelligence of offspring. Using data from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, William Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Steven Gaulin of the University of California, Santa Barbara, found a child's performance in cognition tests was linked to their mother's waist-hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.[23]

Children whose mothers had wide hips and a low waist-hip ratio scored highest, leading Lassek and Gaulin to suggest that fetuses benefit from hip fat that contains polyunsaturated fatty acids critical for the development of the fetus's brain.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ "The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love". Retrieved 2007-09-01. {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coeditors= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ "Men's preferences for women's profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies". Retrieved 2007-09-01. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  3. ^ Article adapted by Medical News Today from original press release. "Waist-hip Ratio Should Replace Body Mass Index As Indicator Of Mortality Risk In Older People", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. August 12, 2006.
  4. ^ Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. The Lancet, November 5, 2005
  5. ^ Singh, D. (2002). "Female Mate Value at a Glance: Relationship of Waist-to-Hip Ratio to Health, Fecundity, and Attractiveness". Neuroendocrinology Letters. 23 (Special Issue): 81–91.
  6. ^ A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys.
  7. ^ Superiority of skinfold measurements and waist over waist-to-hip ratio for determination of body fat distribution in a population-based cohort of Caucasian Dutch adults.
  8. ^ Waist measure and waist-to-hip ratio and identification of clinical conditions of cardiovascular risk: multicentric study in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients
  9. ^ "Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65
  10. ^ Buss, David. The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 56. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); External link in |title= (help)
  11. ^ Wilson, G.D. & Brazendale, A.H. Psychological correlates of sexual attractiveness: An empirical demonstration of denial and fantasy gratification phenomena? Social Behavior and Personality 1973,2,30-34.
  12. ^ Wilson, G.D., Nias D.K.B. & Brazendale, A.H. Vital statistics, perceived sexual attractiveness and response to risque humor. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975,95,201-205.
  13. ^ Singh, Devendra (2001-06-27). "Body Weight, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, Breasts, and Hips: Role in Judgments of Female Attractiveness and Desirability for Relationships" (PDF). Ethology and Sociobiology. 16: 483–507. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00074-7. Retrieved 2007-11-23. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Fisher, M.L. (2006). "The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness". J Cosmet Dermatol. 5 (2): 190–4. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x. PMID 17173598. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Dixson, B.J. (2007). "Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China". Am J Hum Biol. 19 (1): 88–95. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20584. PMID 17160976. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. ^ Marlowe, F. (2001). "Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 30 (3): 481–489. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8. Retrieved 2007-08-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Marlowe, F.W. (2005). "Men's Preferences for Women's Profile Waist-Hip-Ratio in Two Societies" (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior. 26: 458–468. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005. Retrieved 2007-08-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Dixson, B.J. (2007). "Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon". Arch Sex Behav. 36 (3): 369–75. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8. PMID 17136587. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ Freedman, R.E. (2007). "Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?". Eat Behav. 8 (3): 319–33. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008. PMID 17606230. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ Freedman, R.E. (2004). "Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples". Eat Behav. 5 (3): 191–8. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002. PMID 15135331. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Malgorzata Rozmus-Wrzesinska and Boguslaw Pawlowski (March 2005). "Men's ratings of female attractiveness are influenced more by changes in female waist size compared with changes in hip size". Biological Psychology. 68 (3). Department of Anthropology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Kuznicza 35, Wroclaw 50-138, Poland.: 299–308. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.04.007. PMID 15620796.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  22. ^ [1]
  23. ^ a b Lassek, W. (2007). "Waist-hip ratio and cognitive ability: is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources?". Evolution and Human Behavior. PMID S1090-5138(07)00073-6. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check |pmid= value (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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