Philosophy in Canada

The study and teaching of philosophy in Canada dates from the time of New France. There has since developed no particular "Canadian" school of philosophy. Rather, Canadian philosophers have reflected particular views of established European and later American schools of philosophical thought, be it Thomism, Objective Idealism or Scottish Commonsensism. Since the mid-twentieth century the depth and scope of philosophical activity in Canada has increased dramatically. This article focuses on the evolution of epistemology, logic, the philosophy of mind, metaphysics, ethics and metaethics and continental philosophy in Canada.

The monopoly of certainty - Roman Catholic Absolutism 1665 - 1840

The Roman Catholic Church and philosophy

The Roman Catholic Church, one of the founding institutions of New France, had a profound influence on philosophy in Canada. As early as 1665, philosophy, viewed as the handmaiden of theology, was taught in Quebec at the Jesuit College there and included studies in physics, metaphysics and ethics as well as the works of St. Thomas Aquinas (1224 - 1274).

The arrival of the British after 1759 introduced new ideas into New France including those of Cartesian doubt, the atheism of the Enlightenment and the sovereignty of the polity, ideas which threatened those of the Catholic inspired colonial philosophers.

A reaction to these ideas insued, inspired by the French philosopher, Felicite do Lamennais (1782 - 1854) and was reflected in the works of the colonial philosopher Abbe Demers. This reaction initially took the form of an objection to, and refutation of these "unsettling" ideas.

Philosophy and society

Philosophical debate in New France was circumscribed by the fact that Roman Catholic philosophy provided pat and absolute answers to any question that might bedevil a colonial, especially in matters relating to life, marriage, parenthood, death, the afterlife and what constituted a good life.

Certainty versus pluralism and ambiguity 1840 - 1960

Certainty and Thomism

After 1840, in Europe as well as New France the reaction of the Catholic Church to the ideas of the Enlightenment, took the form of stronger response that sought to reaffirm the Catholic view and establish a "Catholic" philosophy that removed secular uncertainly by reinforcing the place of God at the centre of the daily life. This new philosophy took the form of Thomism, which in many ways is considered the "French Canadian" philosophy.

In the 1920's the study of philosophy was taken up by universities in Quebec, including the University de Montreal in 1921 and Laval University in Quebec in 1935. This development was both inspired by and coincident with the publication in 1931 of the Papal pronouncement, Deus Scientarium, which sought to mobilize science as the basis of faith.

The new century was also marked by notable contributions to the study of medieval history and philosophy by Father Ephrem Longpres, the Franciscan medievalist and the Dominican philosophers, including Hermas Bastien, Charles de Koninck, Father Louis Lachance, Father Arcade Monette, Father Julien Péghaire, Father Louis-Marie Regis and Father Patrice Robert.

Pluralism and ambiguity

Institutions

Philosophical study was the exclusive domain of the colleges and universities of English speaking British North America and later Canada. Colleges founded during the colonial regime included Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1818, McGill University in Montreal in 1821, the University of Toronto in 1827, Queens University in Kingston, Ontario in 1841 and the University of Ottawa in 1848. The latter part of the nineteenth century witnessed the founding of the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg in 1877, l´Université de Montréal and the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario in 1878 and McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario in 1887. The University of Alberta in Edmonton and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, were both established in 1908. All provided courses in philosophy.

Ideas and philosophers

The Protestant Reformation inspired the first philosophers in English speaking Canada. These scholars, all taught at newly created colonial universities and their studies emphasized the philosophical foundation of religion, in this case Protestantism, the philosophical understanding of natural world (natural philosophy) and philosophical basis of political systems.

Notable contributors to these ideas included John Watson at Queen's University in Kingston and George John Blewett at the University of Toronto. Other philosophers included Richard Maurice Bucke of London, Ontario, John Macdonald at the University of Alberta, Herbert Leslie Stewart at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Rupert Lodge at the University of Manitoba and George Sydney Brett and John Irving at the University of Toronto.

Of particular note during middle years of the twentieth century was the work of one of Canada's greatest scholars, Harold Innis, of the University of Toronto. Although usually considered an economist and social scientist, his work also reflects an important number of philosophical concepts related to economics and communications. He had a great influence on colleague Marshall McLuhan.

The differentiation of philosophy: New disciplines

The growth and specialization of certain elements of philosophy in Europe, in time lead to their establishment as new disciplines, separate from philosophy. Natural philosophy became the study of physics, moral philosophy evolved into sociology and anthropology and psychology became a branch of study free of the hand of philosophy. These developments were reflected in Canada during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

From Natural Philosophy to Physics: The first full professorships in physics as distinct from natural philosophy, were established at Dalhousie, in Halifax in 1879, Toronto, 1887 and McGill, in Montreal in 1890. Although these were mainly teaching positions there was some research activity. At Dalhousie, Professor J.G.McGregor, the first to hold the position at that university, published about 50 papers during his tenure from 1879 until 1899. Other prominent researchers in the field at this time included H.L. Callendar and E. Rutherford, Macdonald professors of physics at McGill and J.C. McLennan at U of T.

Philosophy and Psychology: Psychology in Canada was initially considered a part of the discipline of philosophy and university courses were given by members of philosophy departments. The first course in psychology in Canada was taught at Dalhousie University in 1838 by Thomas McCulloch within the framework of studies in philosophy. By 1866 Dalhousie hosted a chair in psychology and metaphysics. McGill offered courses beginning in 1850 when lectures in the topic were presented by Professor W.T.Leach with a doctorate from Edinburgh. The first psychology text written in Canada was penned by William Lyall of Halifax in 1855. However by the end of the century psychology was still considered an adjunct to philosophy, not a subject of importance per se, but rather a prerequisite for the advanced study of ethics and metaphysics.

Psychology slowly began to make its mark as a separate discipline in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The oldest Psychology Department in North America was founded at the University of Toronto by Professor Mark Baldwin in 1892 along with a related laboratory in psychology. It was here in 1909, that August Kirschmann, who had studied under Professor Wundt at his famous laboratory in Leipzig, undertook the first fundamental psychological research in Canada and presented seminars on the, "new psychology". Dr. E.A. Brett a noted philosopher at U of T, wrote the three volume "History of Psychology" between 1912 and 1921. McGill established a psychological laboratory under the directorship of Professor William Dunlop Tait in 1910, followed by the creation of a psychology department separate from philosophy in 1922. McMaster employed a professor in psychology by 1890.

The First World War had an important positive effect on the discipline which was recognized for its use in the fields of personnel selection, training and the post war rehabilitation of wounded soldiers.

In the years following the Great War, the number of staff at the U of T increased to seven and important research was undertaken by Dr. E.A. Bott relating to the rehabilitation of soldiers with muscular disabilities. By 1927 the psychology department at U of T had achieved full independence from the bonds of the department of philosophy.

During this period, Dr. Hans Seyle undertook fundamental studies of stress which cut across the boundaries of medical research, biology and psychology. He began his work at McGill in 1936 and continued his investigations at the University of Montreal starting in 1945. He described the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as the body's mechanism for coping with stress and published a number of books including The Stress of Life in 1953.

While still under the influence of the departments of philosophy, noted philosophers such as John Watson at Queens, John MacEacheran at Alberta, William Caldwell at McGill and G.S Brett at U of T, championed the recognition of psychology as a discipline in its own right, leading to the creation of separate departments of philosophy and psychology in many universities. By the end of the thirties the growth of the discipline was sufficient to warrant the establishment of the Canadian Psychological Association in 1939.

From Moral Philosophy to Sociology and Anthropology - The discipline of sociology evolved from the ideas of philosophers Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim in France in the nineteenth century. However it was not until 1922 that Carl A. Dawson was appointed Canada's first professor of sociology at McGill. Honours programmes in sociology were established at McGill in 1926 and at the University of Toronto in 1932.

Anthropology evolved from a long history of interest in Canada's native peoples on the part of Jesuit missionaries, explorers and university professors including Sir Daniel Wilson at the University of Toronto and Sir John William Dawson at McGill and the inspiration provided by moral philosophy. Professional anthropology got its start in Canada in 1910 when Prime Minister Wilfred Laurier established the Division of Anthropology as a part of the Geological Survey of Canada.

Philosophy and society

Ethical debate is the subtext of the long course of Canadian history. Relations between the victorious and the vanquished have provided fertile ground for such discussions for the last four hundred years. The victory of the British at Quebec in 1759 gave rise to a number of acts of the British Parliament, including the Quebec Act(1774), the Act of Union 1840 and the British North America Act(1867), all of which can be read within the context of an ethical debate on the nature of the relations between the French and English speakers of Canada.

The behaviour of the Family Compact in Upper Canada and the Chateau Clique in Lower Canada in the 1840s was the subject of public criticism on ethical grounds and was one of the factors leading to the creation of a democratic and independent Canada in 1867.

The Riel Rebellion of 1869-1870 and the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 were the subject of vigorous public debate much of which related to ethical questions. The eventual hanging of the leader of the rebellions Louis Riel for high treason, in Regina in 1885, only served to intensify the debate.

Throughout this period the rapid pace of technological innovation that witnessd the introduction of the steam train, the telegraph, electricity and the electric light, the telephone, central heating, sky-scrapers, the car, radio and airplane, among others, created a type of public angst based on the ethical perception that the world was moving too quickly and characterized by desire to return to the ¨good old days¨ which were better in their simplicity than the complicated fast-paced new times.

The creation of Banff National Park in 1885, in part a response to the slaughter of the buffalo on the great plains that occurred with the arrival of the CPR, represented the symbolic beginning of an ethical debate on the nature of man's relation to the environment.

The ideas of British scientists Charles Darwin and Huxley relating to evolution were the subject of emotional ethical debate by Canadians, in the latter part of the century. There was keen opposition on ethical grounds to the idea that, ¨man descended from a monkey¨. In the early twentieth the ideas of Einstein relating to gravity and those of Bohr, Heisenburg, Dariac and others relating to the uncertain nature of quantum mechanics were topics of keen public ethical debate.

The feminist movement took root in Canada during the early years of the twentieth century with a number of women including Nellie McClung making an ethical argument for a more prominent role for women in society. About the same time, the ethics of the consumption of alcohol gave rise to vigorous public debate which was eventually reflected in a patchwork of provincial temperance laws across the county.

During the thirties the depression gave rise to debate relating to the ethics of capitalism and the divide between rich and poor.

During these years Canada's relationship to Britain and the Empire were public topics of significant importance and no more so during wartime. The debate relating to participation in Britain's wars included a large element of ethical discussion. This was first seen in the Boer War with large numbers of Canadians going to fight in South Africa out of a sense of moral (ethical) duty. The First War brought to the fore further significant ethical questions including those related to conscription. The conduct of the Second World War raised a number of ethical questions including those related to the interment of Canadian citizens of Japanese ancestry, conscription, an issue revisited from the First War, the bombing of German cities by Royal Canadian Air Force formations in the Royal Air Force and freedom of the press.

The triumph of pluralism: 1960 - present

Introduction

Post war philosophy in Canada has grown tremendously in breadth and scope and philosophers have studied a number of questions including those related to epistemology, logic, philosophy of mind, metaphysics and religion and metaethics (social and political ethics). The use of philosophy to defend and support the place of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec disappeared with the Quiet Revolution in the sixties. This event marked the death of the concept of philosophical certainty in Canada and the triumph of pluralism. At this point philosophy in English and French speaking Canada converged and mostly focused on those themes which have characterized western philosophy in the latter part of the century.

The institutions

In the post war years two new major universities became the home of studies in philosophy: the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo, Ontario founded in 1957 and the University of Calgary in Calgary, Alberta in 1966.

The ideas and philosophers

Epistemology

Studies in this field have often focused on the philosophy of psychology. Important work in this area has been done in Canada, particularly at the Centre for Cognitive Science at the University of Western Ontario by Roland Puccetti, Patricia and Paul Churchland, Zenon Pylyshyn, and Ausonio Marras in the early eighties.

Logic

Studies in logic have been undertaken by a number of individuals. Bas Van Fraassen, William Rozeboom and Alasdair Urquhart have specialized in the semantics of logic, while Hans Herzberger and William Harper have studied the nature of preference. John Woods has investigated concepts relating to relevance and paradox. Others have made contributions to the field, including Charles Morgan (modal logics), Charles Morgan (probability semantics), and Anil Gupta (the semantics of truth and paradoxes).

Philosophy of Mind

All Group of Thirteen (Canadian universities) have departments of philosophy with doctorate-level staff members conducting research related to the philosophy of mind. The work of Dr. Paul R. Thagard, at the University of Waterloo, with respect to cognitive functions and coherence, is of note. Charles Taylor (philosopher), of McGill University in Montreal has studied consciousness within the context of European/Hegelianism. Zenon Pylyshyn a psychologist and computer scientist at the University of Western Ontario from 1964 to 1994, has made significant contributions to cognitive science. Other Canadian-born and educated cognitive scientists have made their mark in the US, including David Kirsh, John Robert Anderson (psychologist), Keith Holyoak, and Steven Pinker.

Metaphysics and Religion

Metaphysics deals with the study of the nature of reality. Since the Enlightenment, reality has been seen through the lenses of both religion and science and there has resulted a conflict between the views of the two. Following the horrors of the Second World War, the attacks on the views of religion became particularly vigorous with science on the offensive.

Canadian philosophers in the postwar era have attempted, in a number of ways, to resolve these conflicts and to legitimize religious belief. A variety of approaches have been used. Some have stressed the similatities between religion and science, as have F.W. Waters (1967) and Alastair McKinnon (1970). Others, including Lionel Rubinoff, have emphasized the importance of placing our scientific view of the world in a larger human context. There have been attempts to resolve the conflict, through science, as seen in the writings of Charles De Koninnck (1960), Thomas Gouge (1961), and A.H. Johnson (1962). Others, inspired by St. Thomas Aquinas, have attempted to argue the rational nature of religious belief. This approach is seen in the work of Bernard Lonergan (1952), Louis-Marie Régis (1959), Joseph Owens (1968), and Jean-Louis Allard (1979, 1982). Still others have attempted to resolve the conflict by questioning the nature of metaphysics itself. Those following this approach within the analytic tradition include Kai Nielsen, Donald Evans (1963), Terence Penelhum (1970), Alistair M. Macleod (1973), and Jay Newman (1986). Phenomenology has also played a role, as seen in the work of Emil Fackemheim (1961), Benoit Pruche (1977-1980), René l'Ecuyer (1980), Jacques Croteau (1981), Cyril Welch (1982), Gary Madison (1988), Hendrik Hart (1990), Jean Grondin (1995), and Thomas de Koninck(1995).

Metaethics - Social and Political Ethics:

Methethics involve the use of philosophy to make our world and society a better place. Work in the field has grown in the postwar years. Research has been undertaken by a large number of individuals including Francis Sparshott, Kai Nielsen, David Braybrooke, Jonathan Bennett, Gerald Cohen, Donald Brown, and Charles Taylor. Wayne Sumner has been active in the field of applied philosophy. Real Fillion has brought together philosophy and politics in his original work in multiculturalism.

The minority position of the French language and culture in Canada and North America is reflected in the preoccupation of a large number of French Canadian philosophers with metaethics. Fernand Dumont, Claude Savary, Jacques Grand'Maison, Michel Morin, Claude Bertrand, Joseph Pestieau, Ferdinand Dumond, Guy Laforest, Louis Balthazar, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Laforest, François Blais, Diane Lamoureux, Michel Seymour, Gerard Bergeron, Maurice Lagueux, Jean Guy Meunier, Serge Cantin, Jean Roy, Guy Lafrance, Roger Lambert, Dominique Leydet, Gilles Labelle, Yvonne Thériault, Guy Lafrance, Josiane Ayoub, Pierre Robert, Bjarne Melkevik, and Philip Knee have made important contributions. They may be considered the secular descendants of their Thomist ancestors.

Continental Philosophy

European philosophers of the 20th Century launched a number of philosophical movements that were revolutionary both within philosophy and in the larger culture. These movements--phenomenology, existentialism and deconstruction--were often not well-received in North American universities, but they have been a regular and growing part of the philosophical landscape of North America since the 1950s, and Canadian universities have played an important role in the development and dissemination of these philosophical ideas. In the 1970s and 1980s, the University of Toronto in particular was internationally known for its experts in what is often called "Continental Philosophy." Emil Fackenheim, Kenneth L. Schmitz, Graeme Nicholson, and others made the University of Toronto and international centre for the study of these approaches to philosophical inquiry. Currently, the University of Guelph, with scholars such as Jay Lampert and John Russon, and McGill University, with young scholars such as Hasana Sharp and Alia Al-Saji, are major North American centers for research and teaching in the Continental traditions of philosophy.

Other Fields

In the sixties, Marshall McLuhan of the University of Toronto, gained world wide prominence for his ideas relating to the philosophy of communication. The writings of Jane Jacobs were also widely read and her insights, including philosophical concepts, relating to urban life have had wide influence in the latter years of the twentieth century. John Ralston Saul has also become well known for his philosophical comments on a number of topics including the nature of reason. In recent years, John Russon has developed an original philosophical approach to the study of mental health and human relationships. Mark Kingwell at the University of Toronto has also become known for his efforts to ¨popularize¨ philosophical concepts.

Associations and related activities

These years saw Canadian philosophy develop to the point where a professional organization, The Canadian Philosophical Association (ACPA), was established in 1958 to encourage and promote philosophy in Canada. This was followed by the founding of regional associations in Ontario, Quebec, the west and Atlantic Canada, and the initiation of the Canadian Philosophical Association Annual Congress. The professional journal, Dialogue was established in 1962, and The Canadian Journal of Philosophy in 1971. Philosophers of note who have been published there include, Joel Feinberg(1974), Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)(1974), Terence Parsons(1980), William C. Wimsatt(1994) and David Gauthier(1994).

Philosophy and society

The relations between French and English speakers in Canada as well as between Quebec and the rest of Canada have been the subject of endless, energetic and at times highly emotional debate in Canada for the last 50 years. While the debate is wide ranging is scope, the ethical subtext is never far from the surface.

In 1961 and 1962, there was a vigorous public debate on the ethics of acquiring nuclear weapons. It ended with the Canadian Forces taking possession of these devices on 1 January 1963 and keeping them ready for use until 1984 when they were returned to the US.

The work of Dr. Allan Cameron the psychiatrist at McGill University in the sixties and that of Gerald Bull the developer of long range artillery systems were topics of keen ethical debate. In the case of the former his views were later repudiated on ethical grounds and in the case of the latter he was asassinated.

The importance of ethics in the medical field has become notable during these years. The introduction of the birth control pill in 1960 lead to a noisy and sometimes titilating debate on the ethics of a more free wheeling sexual behaviour. Abortion has been an issue of extremely vigorous ethical debate, often focused on the activities of well known Canadian physician Dr. Henry Morgentaler. During this period, many hospitals established ethics committees to participate in the medical decision-making process in cases involving questions relating to such things as abortion and resuscitation. In 1989 the Government of Canada established the Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies to study, among other things, the ethical impact of technological advances on human reproduction. The Commission issued its final report in 1993.

The nature of man's relation to the natural environment has become an increasingly important element of the public debate over the last forty years. Much of the discussion relates to ethical questions. The formation of Greenpeace in Vancouver in 1972, introduced what has since become a controversial participant of world repute in this debate.

Ethics have been at the heart of the animal rights movement of recent decades. The most publicized aspect of this debate in Canada has focused on the seal hunt which involves the clubbing to death of ¨white coats¨, the white baby seal pups on the pack ice in the Gulf of St Lawrence in the spring by sealers. In 2009, the European Parliament banned the import of Canadian seal products, mainly on ethical grounds that focused on the concept of cruelty to animals. However concern is more broadly based and includes the ethics of practices such as the use of animals for the testing of products destined for human use and the treatment of animals such and chickens and cows in factory farms.

The ethics of capital punishment have been a long standing topic of public debate. Although the Canadian Government abolished the death sentence in 1976, the issue remains controversial.

The rise of the feminist movement during these years has generated vigorous discussion on the place of women in society. Much of the debate involves ethical questions.

The concept of gay rights has had a similar, if more polarizing effect, on the public debate. This highly charged discussion focuses on a number of important ethical issues. These have in turn become intermixed with the debate relating to the rise of a new fatal infectious disease, AIDS, which initially was thought to be spread mainly by promiscuous homosexual bahaviour.

In tandem with these ideas a heightened emphasis on the liberal view of social inclusion has given rise to a concept known as ¨political correctness¨. This stresses the ethical importance of social inclusiveness and attempts to promote this through behaviour designed not to offend those who may feel excluded from mainstream society.

The nature of society itself has also come under close ethical scrutiny. In particular concepts relating the individualistic, materialistic, selfish, acquisitive, consumer-oriented and secular nature of Canadian and western society have been criticized on ethical grounds.

Developments in recent years have encouraged the promotion of the place in ethics in business and political institutions. The Enron scandal in the US in 2001, subsequently prompted a number of Canadian companies to emphasize the importance of ethical behaviour in the boardroom. Furthermore the Sponsorship Scandal in the federal parliament in 2004, has caused the government to make efforts to promote ethical behavior through the passage of laws such and the Federal Accountability Act in 2006 and the creation of the position of Ethics Commissioner (Canada) in Parliament.

In 2008, physics became a target of ethical discussion with Canadian scientists urging a regulatory response from the federal government to protect the public from the possible harmful effects of nanotechnology.

See also

• List of Canadian philosophers
• Scientific research in Canada
• Anarchism in Canada
• Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics
• Red Tory
• John Russon
• Andrew Feenberg
• William Sweet
• Arthur Schafer
• Robert J. Zydenbos

References

• Armour, Leslie; Trott, Elizabeth, The Faces of Reason: An Essay on Philosophy and Culture in English Canada 1850-1950, Wilfred Laurier University Press, Waterloo, 1981.
• Harris, Robin S., A History of Higher Education in Canada 1663-1960, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1976.
• Lamonde, Yvan, L´historiographie de la philosophie au Quebec (1853-1971), Hurtubise, Montreal, 1970.
• Lamonde, Yvan, La philosophie et son enseignement au Quebec (1665-1920), Hurtubise HMH, Montreal, 1980.

External links

• The Canadian Philosophical Association - [1]