Jump to content

Windows 7: Difference between revisions

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/ http://www.ubuntu.com/
Tag: adding email address
Undid revision 364282844 by 465456645 boyaah 5464996 (talk)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{two other uses|operating systems that use the Linux kernel|the kernel itself|Linux kernel|}}
{{redirect|GNU/Linux|the "GNU" part|GNU/Linux naming controversy}}
{{Infobox OS
| name = Linux
| logo = [[File:Tux.svg|150px]]
| screenshot =
| caption = [[Tux]] the penguin, mascot of Linux <ref name="LinuxOnLine2008">{{cite web
| url = http://www.linux.org/info/logos.html
| title = Linux Logos and Mascots
| accessdate = 2009-08-11
| last = Linux Online
| authorlink =
| year = 2008
}}</ref>
| family = [[Unix-like]]
| website = [http://www.kernel.org/ www.kernel.org]
| developer = [[Linus Torvalds]] and thousands of collaborators
| source model = [[Free and open source software]]
| frequently_updated = yes <!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! -->
| marketing_target = Desktops, servers, embedded devices
| kernel_type = [[Monolithic kernel|Monolithic]]
| ui = {{nowrap|[[Graphical User Interface|Graphical]] ([[X Window System]])}}
| programmed_in = [[C (programming language)|C]]
| prog_language = [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]]
| userland = [[GNU Core Utilities|GNU]] and others
| supported_platforms = [[IA-32]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]], [[x86-64]], [[SPARC]], [[DEC Alpha]], [[Itanium]], [[PowerPC]], [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[m68k]], [[PA-RISC]], [[s390]], [[SuperH]], [[M32R]] and more <!-- Do not include 64 bit extensions of 32 bit ISAs, e.g. sparc64, ppc64, x86-64, etc. -->
| license = Various including [[GNU General Public License]], [[BSD License]], [[Apache License]], [[MIT License]], and others<ref>{{cite web | title = Debian GNU/Linux Licenses – Ohloh | url = https://www.ohloh.net/p/debian/analyses/latest | publisher = ohloh.net | accessdate = 2009-03-27 }}</ref>
| language = Multi-lingual
| updatemodel =
| working_state = Current
}}

{{Listen
| filename = Linus_pronounces_linux_(english).oga
| title = How Linus Torvalds pronounces Linux
| format = [[Ogg]]
}}

'''Linux''' (commonly {{pron-en|ˈlɪnəks}} {{respell|LIN|əks}} in [[American English]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://safalra.com/science/linguistics/linux-pronunciation/|title=Pronunciation of ‘Linux’|last=Safalra|date=2007-04-14|work=Safalra’s Website|accessdate=2009-09-15}}</ref><ref name="Foldoc09Jun06">{{cite web|url = http://foldoc.org/linux|title = Linux|accessdate = 2009-09-15|last = Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing|authorlink = |year = 2006|month = June}}</ref> also {{pron-en|ˈlɪnʊks}} {{respell|LIN|ooks}}<ref>Torvalds used {{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}} in English.<br />{{ cite newsgroup | newsgroups = comp.os.linux | title = Re: How to pronounce "Linux"? | id = 1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI | date = 23 April 1992 | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}<br /> Torvalds has made available an audio sample with his pronunciation in English ({{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}}: {{cite web | url = http://www.paul.sladen.org/pronunciation/ | title = How to pronounce Linux? | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }}) and in Swedish ({{IPA|/ˈlɪːnɤks/}}: {{cite web | url = http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds/ | title = Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish | accessdate = 2007-01-20 }}</ref> in Europe and Canada) is a generic term referring to [[Unix-like]] computer [[operating system]]s that use the [[Linux kernel]]. Their development is one of the most prominent examples of [[free and open source software]] collaboration; typically all the underlying [[source code]] can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the [[GNU General Public License]].

Linux can be installed on a wide variety of computer [[hardware]], ranging from [[embedded device]]s such as mobile phones, smartphones and wristwatches<ref name="LinuxDevices">{{cite web|url = http://www.trl.ibm.com/projects/ngm/wp10_e.htm|title = Linux Watch|accessdate = 2009-09-29|last = [[IBM]]|authorlink = |year = 2001|month = October}}</ref><ref name="IBMLinuxWatch">{{cite web|url = http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Trolltech-rolls-complete-Linux-smartphone-stack/|title = Trolltech rolls "complete" Linux smartphone stack|accessdate = 2009-09-29|last = Linux Devices|authorlink = |year = 2010|month = January}}</ref> to [[mainframe computer|mainframes]] and [[supercomputer]]s.<ref>{{cite web | title = IBM's newest mainframe is all Linux | url = http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9142007/IBM_s_newest_mainframe_is_all_Linux_ | last = Computerworld | first = Patrick Thibodeau | accessdate = 2009-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | last = Lyons | first = Daniel | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> Linux is predominantly known for its use in [[server (computing)|servers]]; in 2007 Linux's overall share of the server market was estimated at 12.7%<ref>{{cite web| title = Linux server market share keeps growing | url = http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html}}</ref>, while a 2008 estimate suggested that 60% of all [[web server]]s ran Linux<ref name="PC World September 2008">
{{cite web|url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/151568/ballmer_still_searching_for_an_answer_to_google.html|title = Ballmer Still Searching for an Answer to Google|accessdate = 2009-06-04|last = Niccolai|first = James|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = September}}</ref>. Most [[desktop computer]]s run either [[Mac OS X]] or [[Microsoft Windows]], with Linux having only 1–2% of the desktop market. However, desktop use of Linux has become increasingly popular in recent years, partly owing to the popular [[Mandriva Linux]], [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]], [[Debian]] or [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]] distributions<ref name="Economist">{{cite news|url = http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10410912|title = Technology in 2008|accessdate = 2008-04-01 (publicly available Dec 2007 – May 2009, rendered members only in May 2009, quoted at [http://web.ncf.ca/fn352/ubuntu.html#Economist National Capital FreeNet]|last = The Economist|authorlink = |year = 2007|month = December}}</ref> and the emergence of [[netbook]]s and [[smartbook]]s.<ref name="Economist04Dec08">{{cite news|url = http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12673233|title = Small is beautiful|accessdate = 2008-12-21|last = [[The Economist]]|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = December}}</ref><ref name="Developer-network01Jan2010">{{cite news|url = http://ldn.linuxfoundation.org/blog-entry/smartbook-playing-field-wide-open-linux|title = Smartbook Playing Field Wide Open for Linux|accessdate = 2008-12-21|last = The Developer-network|authorlink = |year = 2010|month = January}}</ref>

Typically Linux is packaged in a format known as a ''[[Linux distribution]]'' for desktop and server use. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel and all of the supporting software required to run a complete system, such as [[system utility|utilities]] and [[library (computer science)|libraries]], the [[X Window System]], the [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]] [[desktop environment]]s, and the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. Commonly-used applications with desktop Linux systems include the [[Mozilla Firefox]] web-browser, the [[OpenOffice.org]] office application suite and the [[GIMP]] image editor.

The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by [[Linus Torvalds]]. The main supporting [[Userland (computing)|Userland]] in the form of system tools and libraries from the [[GNU Project]] (announced in 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]]) is the basis for the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s preferred name ''[[GNU/Linux naming controversy|GNU/Linux]]''.<ref name="lsag">{{ cite book | url = http://www.tldp.org/LDP/sag/html/sag.html#GNU-OR-NOT | title = Linux System Administrator's Guide | chapter = 1.1 | edition = version 0.9 | year = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | first = Alex | last = Weeks }}</ref><ref name="gnu_homepage">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/ |title=The GNU Operating System |publisher=Gnu.org |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>

==History==
{{double image|right|Richard Matthew Stallman cropped.jpeg|150|Linus Torvalds cropped.jpeg|150|[[Richard Stallman]], left, founder of the [[GNU project]], and [[Linus Torvalds]], right, principal author of the [[Linux kernel]]}}
{{See also|History of Linux}}

===Unix===
The [[Unix]] operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at [[AT&T]]'s Bell Laboratories in the [[United States]] by [[Ken Thompson]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], [[Douglas McIlroy]], and [[Joe Ossanna]]. Unix derived its name as a joke and reference to an experimental operating system that was slow and ineffective called [[MULTICS]]. It was first released in 1971 and was initially entirely written in [[assembly language]], a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language [[C (programming language)|C]] by [[Dennis Ritchie]], (with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier [[porting|portability]] to different computer platforms. With a legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system's source code, Unix quickly grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses.

===GNU===
The [[GNU Project]], started in 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]], had the goal of creating a "''complete Unix-compatible software system''" composed entirely of [[free software]]. Work began in 1984.<ref name="gnu_announce">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html |title=About the GNU Project – Initial Announcement |publisher=Gnu.org |date=2008-06-23 |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> Later, in 1985, Stallman created the [[Free Software Foundation]] and wrote the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, [[compiler]]s, [[text editor]]s, a [[Unix shell]], and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as [[device driver]]s, [[daemon (computer software)|daemons]], and the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] were stalled and incomplete.<ref name="gnu history">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/gnu-history.html |title=Overview of the GNU System |publisher=Gnu.org |date= |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html | title = Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate }}</ref>

===MINIX===
[[File:AndrewTanenbaum.JPG|thumb|[[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]], author of the [[MINIX]] operating system]]

[[MINIX]] was an inexpensive minimal [[Unix-like]] operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]]. As of [[MINIX 3|version 3, MINIX]] is [[free software|free]] and redesigned also for “serious” use.

In 1991 while attending the [[University of Helsinki]], Torvalds, curious about the operating systems <ref>{{ cite newsgroup | title = What would you like to see most in minix? | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | id = 1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI | url = http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b | last = Torvalds | first = Linus | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX limiting it to educational use only (which prevented any commercial use) began to work on his own operating system which eventually became [[Linux kernel|Linux]].

Torvalds began the development of Linux on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later Linux matured and it became possible for Linux to be developed under itself.<ref>{{cite news | title = Chicken and egg: How was the first linux gcc binary created?? | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | url = http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux/msg/4ae6db18d3f49b0e }}</ref> Also GNU applications replaced all MINIX ones because, with code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling operating system. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux available for commercial use, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.<ref>{{cite web | title = Release notes for Linux v0.12 | first = Linus | last = Torvalds | url = http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12 | authorlink = Linus Torvalds | date = 1992-01-05 | accessdate = 2007-07-23 | publisher = Linux Kernel Archives | quote = The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the “you may not distribute it for money” condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same") mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect as of the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it. }}</ref> Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.<ref name="gnu history"/>

===Commercial and popular uptake===
{{Main|Linux adoption}}
Today Linux distributions are used in numerous domains, from [[embedded system]]s to [[supercomputer]]s,<ref>{{cite web | title = Linux system development on an embedded device | url = http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-embdev.html | first = Anand | last = Santhanam | coauthors = Vishal Kulkarni | work = DeveloperWorks | publisher = IBM | date = 1 March 2002 | accessdate = 2007-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Lyons | first = Daniel| title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> and have secured a place in [[server (computing)|server]] installations with the popular [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] application stack.<ref>{{cite web| last = Schrecker| first = Michael| title = Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP | url = http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/webbuilding/page5067.cfm | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been expanding.<ref name="galli2007">{{cite news | first=Peter | last=Galli | coauthors= | title=Vista Aiding Linux Desktop, Strategist Says | date=2007-08-08 | publisher=Ziff Davis Enterprise Inc. | url =http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Linux-and-Open-Source/Vista-Aiding-Linux-Desktop-Strategist-Says/ | work =eWEEK | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="paul2007">{{cite news | first=Ryan | last=Paul | coauthors= | title=Linux market share set to surpass Win 98, OS X still ahead of Vista | date=2007-09-03 | publisher=Ars Technica, LLC | url =http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070903-linux-marketshare-set-to-surpass-windows-98.html | work =Ars Technica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="beer2007">{{cite news | first=Stan | last=Beer | coauthors= | title=Vista to play second fiddle to XP until 2009: Gartner | date=2007-01-23 | publisher=iTWire | url =http://www.itwire.com.au/content/view/8842/53/ | work =iTWire | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="applications2007">{{cite web|url=http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref><ref name="xitimonitor2007">{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Vista slowly continues its growth; Linux more aggressive than Mac OS during the summer | date=2007-09-24 | publisher=AT Internet/XiTi.com | url =http://www.xitimonitor.com/en-us/internet-users-equipment/operating-systems-august-2007/index-1-2-7-107.html | work =XiTiMonitor | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="globalstats2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.w3counter.com/globalstats.php |title=Global Web Stats |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-10 |work=W3Counter |publisher=Awio Web Services LLC }}</ref><ref name="zeitgeist2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist/zeitgeist-jun04.html |title=June 2004 Zeitgeist |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2004-08-12 |work=Google Press Center |publisher=Google Inc. }}</ref> They have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/Brazils-love-of-Linux/2009-1042_3-6245409.html | title = Brazil's love of Linux | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3445805.stm | title = Brazil falls in love with Linux | accessdate = 2009-02-21 | work=BBC News | date=2004-02-01}}</ref> News of the Russian military creating their own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.osor.eu/news/lv-minister-open-standards-improve-efficiency-and-transparency | title = LV: Minister: "Open standards improve efficiency and transparency" | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref> The Indian state of [[Kerala]] has gone so far as to make it mandatory for all state high schools to run Linux on their computers.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/sep2006/gb20060921_463452.htm | title = Linux Spreads its Wings in India | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-shuts-windows-schools-to-use-only-linux/280323/0 | title = Kerala shuts windows, schools to use only Linux | accessdate = 2009-06-22 }}</ref> [[People's Republic of China|China]] uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its [[Loongson]] processor family to achieve technology independence.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mdronline.com/watch/watch_Issue.asp?Volname=Issue+%23110308&on=1 | title = China’s Microprocessor Dilemma | accessdate = 2009-04-15 | publisher = [[Microprocessor Report]] }}</ref> In [[Spain]] some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like [[gnuLinEx]] in [[Extremadura]] and [[Guadalinex]] in [[Andalusia]]. [[France]] and [[Germany]] have also taken steps towards the adoption of Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/48925_linuxop01.shtml | title = Some countries are choosing Linux systems over Microsoft | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref>

Linux distributions have also become popular with the newly founded [[netbook]] market, with many devices such as the [[Eee pc|ASUS Eee PC]] and [[Aspire One|Acer Aspire One]] shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

===Current development===
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of [[Linux distribution]]s.

==Design==
A Linux-based system is a modular [[Unix-like]] operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a [[monolithic kernel]], the [[Linux kernel]], which handles process control, networking, and [[peripheral]] and [[file system]] access. [[Device drivers]] are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.

Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU [[userland (computing)|userland]] is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the [[C standard library|C library]], a popular [[shell (computing)|shell]], and many of the common [[Unix tool]]s which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The [[graphical user interface]] (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the [[X Window System]].

===User interface===
{{See also|User interface}}

Users can control a Linux-based system through a [[command line interface]] (or CLI), a [[graphical user interface]] (or GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware (this is common for embedded systems). For desktop systems, the default mode is usually graphical user interface, where the CLI is available through [[terminal emulator]] windows or on a separate [[virtual console (PC)|virtual console]].

On desktop machines, [[KDE]], [[GNOME]], and [[Xfce]] are the most popular user interfaces,<ref>{{cite web | title = Debian popularity-contest program information | url = http://times.debian.net/1092-30000-popcon-submissions }}</ref> though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the [[X Window System]] (often simply called "X"), which provides [[network transparency]], enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

Other GUIs include [[X window manager]]s such as [[FVWM]], [[Enlightenment (window manager)|Enlightenment]], and [[Window Maker]]. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. This is a more [[minimalism (computing)|minimalist]] goal than KDE, GNOME et al., which are termed [[desktop environment]]s.

A Linux system typically provides a CLI through a [[shell (computing)|shell]], which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.

Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU [[userland (computing)|userland]], use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple [[inter-process communication]]. A graphical [[terminal emulator]] program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.

==Development==
[[File:Unix history.svg|thumb|220px|A summarized history of [[Unix-like]] operating systems showing Linux's origins. Note that despite similar architectural designs and concepts being shared as part of the [[POSIX]] standard, Linux does not share any non-free source code with the original [[Unix]] or [[MINIX]].]]
{{Main|Linux distribution}}

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the [[Linux kernel]] and other components are [[free software|free]] and [[open source software]]. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.<ref name="MarketShare09NOV">{{cite web|url = http://marketshare.hitslink.com/operating-system-market-share.aspx?qprid=8|title = Operating System Market Share|accessdate = 2009-12-11|last = Operating System Market Share |authorlink = |year = 2009|month = November}}</ref>
Some [[free software license|free]] and [[open source license|open source]] software licenses are based on the principle of [[copyleft]], a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the [[GNU GPL]], is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the [[GNU project]].

Linux based distributions are intended by developers for [[interoperability]] with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to [[POSIX]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ukuug.org/newsletter/linux-newsletter/linux@uk21/posix.shtml | title = POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-2) Certification }}</ref> [[Single UNIX Specification|SUS]],<ref>{{cite web | title = How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems? | url = http://www.debian.org/doc/FAQ/ch-compat.en.html#s-otherunices | work = Debian FAQ | publisher = the Debian project }}</ref> [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], and [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/0131 | title = Certifying Linux }}</ref>

Free software projects, although developed in a [[collaboration|collaborative]] fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a [[Linux distribution]].

A [[Linux distribution]], commonly called a "distro", is a project that manages a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a [[package manager]] such as [[Synaptic Package Manager|Synaptic]], [[YAST]], or [[Portage (software)|Portage]] to install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.

===Community===
{{See also|Free software community|Linux Users Group}}

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, [[Debian]] being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as [[Red Hat]] does with [[Fedora (Linux distribution)|Fedora]].

In many cities and regions, local associations known as [[Linux Users Group]]s (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many [[Internet]] communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have [[IRC]] chatrooms or [[newsgroup]]s. [[Online forum]]s are another means for support, with notable examples being [[LinuxQuestions.org]] and the [[Gentoo Linux|Gentoo]] forums. Linux distributions host [[mailing list]]s; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print [[magazine]]s on Linux often include [[cover disk]]s including software or even complete Linux distributions.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/dvd/ | title=Linux Format DVD contents | author=[[Linux Format]] | accessdate=2008-01-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.linux-magazine.com/resources/current_issue | title=Current Issue | author=[[Linux Magazine|linux-magazine.com]] | accessdate=2008-01-17 }}</ref>

Although [[Linux distributions]] are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of [[free software]]. An analysis of Linux showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to the traditional, open source community.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://apcmag.com/linux-now-75-corporate.htm | title=75% of Linux code now written by paid developers
| author=|work=[[APC (magazine)|APC]] | accessdate=2010-01-22 }}</ref> Some of the major corporations that contribute include [[Dell]], [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Novell]], [[Nokia]]. A number of corporations, notably [[Red Hat]], have built their entire business around Linux distributions.

The [[free software licenses]], on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as [[symbiosis|symbiotic]]. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.

===Programming on Linux===
Most Linux distributions support dozens of [[programming language]]s. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the [[GNU toolchain]], which includes the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC) and the [[GNU build system]]. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], and [[Fortran]]. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] compilers for Linux include the [[Intel C++ Compiler]], [[Sun Studio (software)|Sun Studio]], and IBM XL [[C (programming language)|C]]/[[C++]] Compiler. [[BASIC]] is supported in such forms as [[Gambas]], [[FreeBASIC]], and [[XBasic]].

Most distributions also include support for [[PHP]], [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and other [[dynamic programming language|dynamic languages]]. While not as common, Linux also supports [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] via the [[Mono (software)|Mono]] project, sponsored by [[Novell]], and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]. A number of [[Java Virtual Machine]]s and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM ([[HotSpot]]), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like [[Kaffe]].

The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]]. These projects are based on the [[GTK+]] and [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]s, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of [[Integrated development environment]]s available including [[Anjuta]], [[Code::Blocks]], [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]], [[KDevelop]], [[Lazarus (software)|Lazarus]], [[MonoDevelop]], [[NetBeans]], [[Qt Creator]] and [[Omnis Studio]] while the long-established editors [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] and [[Emacs]] remain popular.<ref>{{cite web | first = Joe | last = Brockmeier | title = A survey of Linux Web development tools | url = http://programming.linux.com/programming/05/10/03/1828224.shtml?tid=63&tid=47 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref>

==Uses==
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: [[computer architecture]] support, [[Embedded Linux|embedded systems]], stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only [[free software]]. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | accessdate = 2006-05-19 }}</ref>

Linux is a widely [[porting|ported]] operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of [[computer architecture]]s: in the hand-held [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-based [[iPAQ]] and the [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] [[IBM]] [[IBM System z9|System z9]], [[IBM System z9|System z10]] in devices ranging from [[mobile phone]]s to [[supercomputer]]s.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.freeos.com/articles/4737/ | title = If I could re-write Linux | first = Prakash | last = Advani | date = 8 February 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-23 | publisher = freeos.com }}</ref> Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The [[ELKS]] kernel [[fork (software development)|fork]] can run on [[Intel 8086]] or [[Intel 80286]] [[16-bit]] microprocessors, while the [[µClinux]] kernel fork may run on systems without a [[memory management unit]]. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as [[Macintosh]] computers (with both [[PowerPC]] and [[Intel]] processors), [[Personal digital assistant|PDAs]], [[video game console]]s, [[Digital audio player|portable music players]], and [[mobile phone]]s.

There are several industry associations and hardware [[conference]]s{{dn}} devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as [[FreedomHEC]].

===Desktop===
[[File:Gnome-2.28.png|thumb|[[GNOME]]]]
[[File:KDE 4.png|thumb|[[KDE]]]]
[[File:Xfce-4.4.png|thumb|[[Xfce]]]]
[[File:LXDE desktop full.png|thumb|[[LXDE]]]]
{{Main|Desktop Linux}}

The popularity of Linux on standard desktops (and laptops) has been increasing over the years.<ref>[http://www.linux.org/info/index.html What is Linux]</ref> Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment. The two most popular such environments are [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]], both of which are mature and support a wide variety of languages.

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007 [[Con Kolivas]] accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linux: why I quit|url=http://apcmag.com/node/6735/|accessdate=2008-01-18|date=2007-07-24|work=APC Magazine|publisher=ACP Magazines}}</ref> Since then a significant effort has been expended improving the desktop experience. Projects such as [[upstart]] aim for a faster boot time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Performance of Java on Ubuntu vs Windows|url=http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=java_vm_performance&num=1}}</ref> In the field of [[Linux gaming|gaming]], the Linux desktop still lags behind Windows.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=908&num=1 |title=A Synopsis Of Linux Graphics Drivers |author=Michael Larabel |date=9 November 2007 |accessdate=31 March 2009}}</ref> However, there are [[Linux gaming#Commercial games|several companies]] that do port their own or other companies' games to Linux.

Many types of applications available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a [[free software]] application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating systems, or that application will have a version that works on Linux (such as [[Skype]]). Furthermore, the [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. [[CrossOver]] is a proprietary solution based on the open source [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project that supports running Windows versions of [[Microsoft Office]], [[Intuit]] applications such as [[Quicken]] and [[QuickBooks]], [[Adobe Photoshop]] versions through CS2, and many popular games such as ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' and ''[[Team Fortress 2]]''. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as [[desktop publishing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freeos.com/articles/2540/ |title=Microsoft Office for Linux? |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Advani |first=Prakash |date=2000-10-27 |work=FreeOS |publisher=FreeOS Technologies (I) Pvt. Ltd. }}</ref> and [[professional audio]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arstechnica.com/guides/tweaks/linux-audio.ars |title=Editing audio in Linux |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Smith-Heisters |first=Ian |date=2005-10-11 |work=Ars Technica |publisher=Ars Technica, LLC }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/linux-its-not/apr-07/27458 |title=Linux: It's Not Just For Computer Geeks Anymore |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Lumma |first=Carl |date=April 2007 |work=Keyboard Magazine |publisher=New Bay Media, LLC. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb04/articles/mirrorimage.htm |title=Using Linux For Recording & Mastering |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=James |first=Daniel |date=February 2004 |work=Sound On Sound |publisher=SOS Publications Group }}</ref> there is equivalent software available on Linux.

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example [[Mozilla Firefox]], and [[OpenOffice.org]] have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux (such as [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]], and [[GIMP]]) and, due to their popularity, were ported to other operating systems (including Windows and Mac OS X).

A growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iist.unu.edu/globaldesktop/ | title = The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities|accessdate = 2006-05-07 }}</ref> see [[List of proprietary software for Linux]]. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as [[Maya (software)|AutoDesk Maya]], Softimage XSI and [[Shake (software)|Apple Shake]], is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X.

The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to [[L10n|localize]]{{dn}} Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the [[Sinhalese language]] version of the [[Knoppix]] distribution was available significantly before [[Microsoft Windows XP]] was translated to Sinhalese.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} In this case the [[Lanka Linux User Group]] played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, [[linguist]]s, and local developers.

Installing new software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as [[Synaptic Package Manager]], [[PackageKit]], and [[Yellow dog Updater, Modified|Yum Extender]]. While major Linux distributions have extensive repositories (tens of thousands of packages), not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty, compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it's hardly needed in modern distributions.

===Servers, mainframes and supercomputers===
[[File:Server Linux.jpg|thumb|left|Servers designed for Linux]]
[[Linux distributions]] have long been used as [[server (computing)|server]] operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; [[Netcraft]] reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their [[web server]]s.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rackspace Most Reliable Hoster in September | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/10/07/rackspace_most_reliable_hoster_in_september.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 7 October 2006 | accessdate = 2006-11-01}}</ref> (As of June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, [[FreeBSD]] three of ten, and [[Microsoft]] two of ten;<ref>{{cite web | title = Aplus.Net is the Most Reliable Hosting Company Site in June 2008 | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2008/07/07/aplusnet_is_the_most_reliable_hosting_company_site_in_june_2008.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 7 July 2008 | accessdate = 2008-07-28}}</ref> as of February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, [[FreeBSD]] two of ten, and [[Microsoft]] one of ten.<ref>{{cite web | title = Most Reliable Hosting Company Sites in February 2010 | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2010/03/01/most_reliable_hosting_company_sites_in_february_2010.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 1 March 2010 | accessdate = 2010-03-23}}</ref>)

[[File:JaguarXT5.jpg|thumb|The [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]'s [[National Center for Computational Sciences#Jaguar|Jaguar supercomputer]], as of November 2009 the world's fastest supercomputer. It uses the [[Unicos#Variants|Cray Linux Environment]] as its operating system.<ref name="CrayJag">{{cite web|url = http://www.top500.org/system/10184|title = Jaguar|accessdate = 2009-11-18|last = TOP500.Org|authorlink = |year = 2009}}</ref><ref name="NCCSJag">{{cite web|url = http://www.nccs.gov/computing-resources/jaguar/|title = Jaguar|accessdate = 2009-11-18|last = National Center for Computational Sciences|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = October}}</ref>]]
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] server-software combination (Linux, [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]], [[MySQL]], [[Perl]]/[[PHP]]/[[Python (programming language)|Python]]) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

[[Linux distributions]] have become increasingly popular on [[mainframe computer|mainframes]] in the last decade due to pricing, compared to other mainframe operating systems. In December 2009, computer giant [[IBM]] reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.<ref name="The Register">{{cite web|author=Timothy Prickett Morgan|url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/12/11/ibm_linux_only_mainframe/ |title=IBM punts Linux-only mainframes Big MIPS, deep discounts |publisher=The Register |date= |accessdate=2009-07-02}}</ref>

[[Linux distribution]]s are also commonly used as [[operating systems]] for [[supercomputer]]s: as of November 2009, out of the [[TOP500|top 500]] systems, 446 (89.2%) run a Linux distribution.<ref name="top500_osfam">{{cite web|author=TOP500.org |url=http://www.top500.org/stats/list/34/osfam |title=Operating system Family share for 11/2009 &#124; TOP500 Supercomputing Sites |publisher=Top500.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-29}}</ref>

Linux was also selected as the operating system for the world's most powerful supercomputer, IBM's [[IBM Sequoia|Sequoia]] which will become operational in 2011.<ref name="IBM">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/26599.wss|title=20 Petaflop Sequoia Supercomputer}}</ref>

===Embedded devices===
{{See also|Embedded Linux|Linux devices}}
[[File:T-Mobile G1 launch event 2.jpg|thumb|An [[HTC Dream]] running [[Android (operating system)|Android]]]]
Due to its low cost and ease of modification, an [[embedded Linux]] is often used in [[embedded systems]]. Linux has become a major competitor of [[Symbian OS]] which is used in the majority of smartphones—16.7% of [[smartphone]]s sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=197000995 | title = The Palm OS Clings To Life }}</ref>—and it is an alternative to the proprietary [[Windows CE]] and [[Palm OS]] operating systems on [[mobile device]]s. Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like [[Nokia N810]], [[Openmoko]]'s [[Neo1973]], Motorola RAZR2 v8, [[Motorola ROKR E8]], Motorola MING series, Motorola ZINE and [[Google Android]]. The popular [[TiVo]] digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp | title = TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code | accessdate = 2006-12-12 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070519150730/http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp |archivedate=2007-05-19}}</ref> Several network [[Firewall (computing)|firewall]] and [[router]] standalone products, including several from [[Cisco]]/[[Linksys]], use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The [[Korg OASYS]], Roland RD-700GX and the [[Yamaha Motif|Yamaha Motif XS]] [[music workstation]]s also run Linux.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mvista.com/downloads/Case_study_MontaVista_Linux_and_Yamaha.pdf |title=Case Study: How MontaVista Linux helped Yamaha developers make a great product greater |accessdate=2007-08-26}}</ref> Furthermore, Linux is used in the leading [[stage lighting]] control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.highend.com/products/controllers/Wholehog3Console.asp | title=Embedded Linux: FlyingPigs the WholeHogIII runs on Linux}}</ref>

===Market share and uptake===
{{Main|Linux adoption}}
{{OS marketshare|align=right}}
{{See also|Usage share of operating systems|List of Linux computers}}
Many quantitative studies of [[free software|free]] / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.<ref>{{cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html | title = Why Open Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.techweb.com/wire/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=55800522 | title = Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008 | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref>

[[International Data Corporation|IDC]]'s Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.<ref name="Linux-watch.com IDC's Q1 2007 report">{{cite web|url=http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html |title=─ IDC Q1 2007 report |publisher=Linux-watch.com |date=2007-05-29 |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies and did not include server hardware purchased separately and had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEO [[Steve Ballmer]] admitted that 60% of web-servers run Linux versus 40% that run [[Windows Server]].<ref name="PC World September 2008"/>

Companies have, mostly based on web server statistics, estimated that the desktop market share of Linux range from less than 1% to 2.14%. In comparison, [[List of Microsoft operating systems|Microsoft operating systems]] hold more than 85%.<ref name="galli2007"/><ref name="paul2007"/><ref name="beer2007"/><ref name="applications2007"/><ref name="xitimonitor2007"/><ref name="globalstats2007"/><ref name="zeitgeist2004"/><ref name="Byfield04May09">{{cite web|url = http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/osrc/article.php/12068_3818696_2/Linux-Desktop-Market-Share-Greater-Than-One-Percent.htm|title = Linux Desktop Market Share: Greater Than One Percent?|accessdate = 2009-05-06|last = Byfield|first = Bruce|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = May}}</ref><ref name="W3CCounterJuly09">{{cite web|url = http://www.w3counter.com/globalstats.php|title = W3Counter – Global Webstats|accessdate = 2009-08-22|last = Awio Web Services|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = August}}</ref>

The frictional cost of switching operating systems, lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for [[Microsoft Windows]], and work by Microsoft to actively prevent large-scale installations have been three factors that have inhibited adoption. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www-306.ibm.com/software/info/features/feb152005/ | title = Why customers are flocking to Linux }}</ref> low cost, and freedom from [[vendor lock-in]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ca.com/za/news/2005/20051010_linux.htm| title = The rise and rise of Linux }}</ref>

Also most recently Google has begun to fund [[Wine (software)|Wine]], which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.<ref>{{cite mailing list |last=Kegel |first=Dan |url=http://article.gmane.org/gmane.comp.emulators.wine.devel/56872 |title=Google's support for Wine in 2007 |date=2008-02-14 |mailinglist=wine-devel |accessdate=2009-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://code.google.com/opensource/wine.html
|title=Open Source Patches: Wine
|publisher=Google
|accessdate=2008-09-07
}}</ref>

The [[OLPC XO-1|XO laptop]] project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=mission|url=http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml|publisher=laptop.org|accessdate=2008-08-14}}</ref> [[Google]], [[Red Hat]], and [[eBay]] are major supporters of the project.<ref>[http://www-static.laptop.org/vision/progress/ One Laptop per Child (OLPC), a low-cost, connected laptop for the world's children's education]</ref> While the XO will also have a Windows option, it will be primarily deployed using [[Sugar (desktop environment)|Sugar]], a desktop environment for [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]] Linux.

In the film industry, Linux has been the platform of choice for several years. The first major film produced on Linux servers was [[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]] in 1997. Since then major studios like [[Dreamworks Animation]], [[Pixar]] and [[Industrial Light & Magic]] have moved to Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/5472 | title = Industry of Change: Linux Storms Hollywood | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://video.fosdem.org/2008/maintracks/FOSDEM2008-tuxwithshades.ogg | title = Tux with Shades, Linux in Hollywood | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref> According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxmovies.org/ | title = LinuxMovies.org – Advancing Linux Motion Picture Technology | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref>

==Copyright and naming==
{{See also|SCO-Linux controversies}}
The Linux and most GNU software are [[software license|licensed]] under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. Other key components of a software system may use other licenses; many libraries use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the [[X Window System]] uses the [[MIT License]].

Torvalds states that the Linux will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3. He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in [[digital rights management]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/9/25/161 | title=Re: GPLv3 Position Statement | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-09-25 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref> and it would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.<ref>[http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS3301105877.html Linux-Watch.com – Keeping an Eye on the Penguin]</ref>

A 2001 study of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million [[source lines of code]].<ref name = "estimating_size"/> Using the [[COCOMO|Constructive Cost Model]], the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional [[proprietary software|proprietary]] means, it would have cost about ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|1080000000|2000}}|0}} ({{CURRENTISOYEAR}} US dollars) to develop in the United States.<ref name = "estimating_size">{{cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | date = 2002-07-29 | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html | title = More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref>

Most of the code (71%) was written in the [[C (programming language)|C]] [[computer programming|programming]] [[programming language|language]], but many other languages were used, including [[C++]], [[assembly language]], [[Perl]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Fortran]], and various [[shell script]]ing languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.<ref name = "estimating_size"/>

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).<ref>{{cite web | first = Juan José | last = Amor | coauthors = et al. | date = 17 June 2007 | url = https://penta.debconf.org/~joerg/attachments/33-measuring_etch_slides.pdf | title = Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0 | accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref> This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|7170186240|2007}}|0}} ({{CURRENTISOYEAR}} US dollars) to develop by conventional means. <!-- original paper quoted 5358000000 euros, but Wikipedia does not have an inflation calculator for euros; converted to USD via June 17 2007 exchange rate as provided by http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/exchform.html and double-checked against other sources of historical exchange rates ... it is also more useful to quote the number in dollars, for comparison to other dollar amounts quoted in this article, e.g. the 2001 study above -->

In the United States, the name ''Linux'' is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://assignments.uspto.gov/assignments/q?db=tm&rno=1916230 | title = U.S. Reg No: 1916230 | publisher = United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark ''Linux'', and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/9065 | title = Linux Timeline | publisher = Linux Journal | date = 31 May 2006 }}</ref> The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the [[Linux Mark Institute]]. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,<ref>{{cite news
| author = Neil McAllister
| title = Linus gets tough on Linux trademark
| url = http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/09/05/36OPopenent_1.html
| work = [[InfoWorld]]
| date = 2005-09-05
| accessdate = 2008-02-24
}}</ref> but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.linuxmark.org
| title = Linux Mark Institute
| accessdate = 2008-02-24
| quote = LMI has restructured its sublicensing program. Our new sublicense agreement is: Free — approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual — sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your organization ceases to use its mark; Worldwide — one sublicense covers your use of the mark anywhere in the world
}}</ref>

===GNU/Linux===
{{Main|GNU/Linux naming controversy}}

The [[Free Software Foundation]] views Linux distributions which use GNU software as [[GNU variants]] and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as ''GNU/Linux'' or ''a Linux-based GNU system''.<ref name="Stallman01">{{cite web | title = Linux and the GNU Project | url = http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html | first = Richard | last = Stallman | authorlink = Richard Stallman | date = 2007-03-03 | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | publisher = Free Software Foundation }}</ref> The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as ''Linux'', as do many large Linux distributions (e.g. [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]<ref>{{cite web | title = About Us | url = http://www.ubuntu.com/aboutus | date = 2010-11-05 | accessdate = 2010-11-05 | publisher = Canonical Ltd. | quote = Ubuntu has become one of the most highly regarded Linux distributions with millions of users around the world.}}</ref>, [[SuSE]] Linux or [[Mandriva Linux]]). Some distributions use ''GNU/Linux'' (particularly notable is [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]], on which Ubuntu is based), but the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The naming issue remains controversial.

==See also==
{{portal|Linux}}
{{portal|Free software}}
* [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]
* [[Comparison of Linux distributions]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
* [[Comparison of Windows and Linux]]
* [[Comparison of Windows versions]]
* [[List of operating systems]]
* [[Usage share of operating systems|Market share of operating systems]]
* [[Comparison of open source and closed source]]

==References==
{{clear}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Weinberg | first = Bill
| title = Uniting Mobile Linux Application Platforms
| publisher = LinuxPundit.com
| date = July 2008
| page = 18
| url = http://www.linuxpundit.com/cv/docs/Platforms_WP_LP.pdf
}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
* {{dmoz|Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux|Linux}}
* [http://www.gnu.org/ GNU Project website]
* [http://www.makelinux.net/system/new Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals]
* [http://www.linux.com/ Linux.com website]
* [http://www.tldp.org/ Linux Documentation Project]
* [http://www.linux-foundation.org/ Linux Foundation]
* [http://www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]
* [http://www.linuxmark.org/ Linux Mark Institute] (manages the Linux trade mark)
* [http://www.linux.org/ Linux.org website]

{{Linux}}
{{Unix-like}}
{{FOSS}}
{{Operating system}}
{{Linux distributions}}

[[Category:1991 software]]
[[Category:Linux| ]]
[[Category:Computing platforms]]
[[Category:Cross-platform software]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|hu}}
[[ace:Linux]]
[[af:Linux]]
[[als:Linux]]
[[am:ሊኑክስ]]
[[ar:جنو/لينكس]]
[[an:Linux]]
[[ast:Linux]]
[[az:Linuks]]
[[bn:লিনাক্স]]
[[zh-min-nan:Linux]]
[[be:Linux]]
[[be-x-old:Linux]]
[[bar:Linux]]
[[bs:Linux]]
[[br:Linux]]
[[bg:Линукс]]
[[ca:GNU/Linux]]
[[ceb:Linux]]
[[cs:Linux]]
[[co:Linux]]
[[cy:Linux]]
[[da:Linux]]
[[de:Linux]]
[[et:Linux]]
[[el:Linux]]
[[es:GNU/Linux]]
[[eo:Linukso]]
[[eu:Linux]]
[[fa:لینوکس]]
[[fr:Linux]]
[[ga:Linux]]
[[gl:Linux]]
[[ko:리눅스]]
[[hy:Լինուքս]]
[[hi:लिनक्स]]
[[hsb:Linux]]
[[hr:Linux]]
[[io:Linux]]
[[ilo:GNU/Linux]]
[[id:Linux]]
[[ia:Linux]]
[[zu:Linux]]
[[it:Linux]]
[[he:לינוקס]]
[[jv:Linux]]
[[kn:ಲಿನಕ್ಸ್]]
[[ka:ლინუქსი]]
[[csb:Linux]]
[[kk:Linux]]
[[ht:Linux]]
[[ku:Linux]]
[[lo:ລິນຸກຊ໌]]
[[la:Linux]]
[[lv:Linux]]
[[lb:Linux]]
[[lt:Linux]]
[[li:Linux]]
[[jbo:linuks]]
[[lmo:Linux]]
[[hu:Linux]]
[[mk:Линукс]]
[[mg:Linux]]
[[ml:ഗ്നു/ലിനക്സ്]]
[[mr:लिनक्स]]
[[arz:لينكس]]
[[ms:Linux]]
[[mn:Линукс]]
[[nl:Linux]]
[[ne:लिनक्स]]
[[new:लाइनक्स]]
[[ja:Linux]]
[[no:GNU/Linux]]
[[nn:Linux]]
[[oc:Linux]]
[[uz:GNU/Linux]]
[[nds:Linux]]
[[pl:Linux]]
[[pt:Linux]]
[[kaa:Linux]]
[[ksh:Linux (Bedriefsystem)]]
[[ro:GNU/Linux]]
[[qu:Linux]]
[[ru:Linux]]
[[sah:Linux]]
[[sc:Linux]]
[[stq:Linux]]
[[sq:Linux]]
[[scn:Linux]]
[[simple:Linux]]
[[sk:Linux]]
[[sl:Linux]]
[[szl:Linux]]
[[so:Linux]]
[[ckb:گنو/لینوکس]]
[[sr:Линукс]]
[[sh:Linux]]
[[fi:Linux]]
[[sv:Linux]]
[[tl:Linux]]
[[ta:க்னூ/லினக்சு]]
[[tt:Linux]]
[[te:లినక్సు]]
[[th:ลินุกซ์]]
[[tr:Linux]]
[[udm:Linux]]
[[uk:Лінукс]]
[[ur:لینکس]]
[[vec:Linux]]
[[vi:Linux]]
[[fiu-vro:Linux]]
[[wa:Linux]]
[[war:Linux]]
[[wo:Linux]]
[[yi:לינוקס]]
[[zh-yue:Linux]]
[[zea:Linux]]
[[bat-smg:Linux]]
[[zh:Linux]]

{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{two other uses|operating systems that use the Linux kernel|the kernel itself|Linux kernel|}}
{{redirect|GNU/Linux|the "GNU" part|GNU/Linux naming controversy}}
{{Infobox OS
| name = Linux
| logo = [[File:Tux.svg|150px]]
| screenshot =
| caption = [[Tux]] the penguin, mascot of Linux <ref name="LinuxOnLine2008">{{cite web
| url = http://www.linux.org/info/logos.html
| title = Linux Logos and Mascots
| accessdate = 2009-08-11
| last = Linux Online
| authorlink =
| year = 2008
}}</ref>
| family = [[Unix-like]]
| website = [http://www.kernel.org/ www.kernel.org]
| developer = [[Linus Torvalds]] and thousands of collaborators
| source model = [[Free and open source software]]
| frequently_updated = yes <!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! -->
| marketing_target = Desktops, servers, embedded devices
| kernel_type = [[Monolithic kernel|Monolithic]]
| ui = {{nowrap|[[Graphical User Interface|Graphical]] ([[X Window System]])}}
| programmed_in = [[C (programming language)|C]]
| prog_language = [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]]
| userland = [[GNU Core Utilities|GNU]] and others
| supported_platforms = [[IA-32]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]], [[x86-64]], [[SPARC]], [[DEC Alpha]], [[Itanium]], [[PowerPC]], [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[m68k]], [[PA-RISC]], [[s390]], [[SuperH]], [[M32R]] and more <!-- Do not include 64 bit extensions of 32 bit ISAs, e.g. sparc64, ppc64, x86-64, etc. -->
| license = Various including [[GNU General Public License]], [[BSD License]], [[Apache License]], [[MIT License]], and others<ref>{{cite web | title = Debian GNU/Linux Licenses – Ohloh | url = https://www.ohloh.net/p/debian/analyses/latest | publisher = ohloh.net | accessdate = 2009-03-27 }}</ref>
| language = Multi-lingual
| updatemodel =
| working_state = Current
}}

{{Listen
| filename = Linus_pronounces_linux_(english).oga
| title = How Linus Torvalds pronounces Linux
| format = [[Ogg]]
}}

'''Linux''' (commonly {{pron-en|ˈlɪnəks}} {{respell|LIN|əks}} in [[American English]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://safalra.com/science/linguistics/linux-pronunciation/|title=Pronunciation of ‘Linux’|last=Safalra|date=2007-04-14|work=Safalra’s Website|accessdate=2009-09-15}}</ref><ref name="Foldoc09Jun06">{{cite web|url = http://foldoc.org/linux|title = Linux|accessdate = 2009-09-15|last = Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing|authorlink = |year = 2006|month = June}}</ref> also {{pron-en|ˈlɪnʊks}} {{respell|LIN|ooks}}<ref>Torvalds used {{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}} in English.<br />{{ cite newsgroup | newsgroups = comp.os.linux | title = Re: How to pronounce "Linux"? | id = 1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI | date = 23 April 1992 | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}<br /> Torvalds has made available an audio sample with his pronunciation in English ({{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}}: {{cite web | url = http://www.paul.sladen.org/pronunciation/ | title = How to pronounce Linux? | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }}) and in Swedish ({{IPA|/ˈlɪːnɤks/}}: {{cite web | url = http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds/ | title = Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish | accessdate = 2007-01-20 }}</ref> in Europe and Canada) is a generic term referring to [[Unix-like]] computer [[operating system]]s that use the [[Linux kernel]]. Their development is one of the most prominent examples of [[free and open source software]] collaboration; typically all the underlying [[source code]] can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the [[GNU General Public License]].

Linux can be installed on a wide variety of computer [[hardware]], ranging from [[embedded device]]s such as mobile phones, smartphones and wristwatches<ref name="LinuxDevices">{{cite web|url = http://www.trl.ibm.com/projects/ngm/wp10_e.htm|title = Linux Watch|accessdate = 2009-09-29|last = [[IBM]]|authorlink = |year = 2001|month = October}}</ref><ref name="IBMLinuxWatch">{{cite web|url = http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Trolltech-rolls-complete-Linux-smartphone-stack/|title = Trolltech rolls "complete" Linux smartphone stack|accessdate = 2009-09-29|last = Linux Devices|authorlink = |year = 2010|month = January}}</ref> to [[mainframe computer|mainframes]] and [[supercomputer]]s.<ref>{{cite web | title = IBM's newest mainframe is all Linux | url = http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9142007/IBM_s_newest_mainframe_is_all_Linux_ | last = Computerworld | first = Patrick Thibodeau | accessdate = 2009-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | last = Lyons | first = Daniel | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> Linux is predominantly known for its use in [[server (computing)|servers]]; in 2007 Linux's overall share of the server market was estimated at 12.7%<ref>{{cite web| title = Linux server market share keeps growing | url = http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html}}</ref>, while a 2008 estimate suggested that 60% of all [[web server]]s ran Linux<ref name="PC World September 2008">
{{cite web|url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/151568/ballmer_still_searching_for_an_answer_to_google.html|title = Ballmer Still Searching for an Answer to Google|accessdate = 2009-06-04|last = Niccolai|first = James|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = September}}</ref>. Most [[desktop computer]]s run either [[Mac OS X]] or [[Microsoft Windows]], with Linux having only 1–2% of the desktop market. However, desktop use of Linux has become increasingly popular in recent years, partly owing to the popular [[Mandriva Linux]], [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]], [[Debian]] or [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]] distributions<ref name="Economist">{{cite news|url = http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10410912|title = Technology in 2008|accessdate = 2008-04-01 (publicly available Dec 2007 – May 2009, rendered members only in May 2009, quoted at [http://web.ncf.ca/fn352/ubuntu.html#Economist National Capital FreeNet]|last = The Economist|authorlink = |year = 2007|month = December}}</ref> and the emergence of [[netbook]]s and [[smartbook]]s.<ref name="Economist04Dec08">{{cite news|url = http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12673233|title = Small is beautiful|accessdate = 2008-12-21|last = [[The Economist]]|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = December}}</ref><ref name="Developer-network01Jan2010">{{cite news|url = http://ldn.linuxfoundation.org/blog-entry/smartbook-playing-field-wide-open-linux|title = Smartbook Playing Field Wide Open for Linux|accessdate = 2008-12-21|last = The Developer-network|authorlink = |year = 2010|month = January}}</ref>

Typically Linux is packaged in a format known as a ''[[Linux distribution]]'' for desktop and server use. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel and all of the supporting software required to run a complete system, such as [[system utility|utilities]] and [[library (computer science)|libraries]], the [[X Window System]], the [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]] [[desktop environment]]s, and the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. Commonly-used applications with desktop Linux systems include the [[Mozilla Firefox]] web-browser, the [[OpenOffice.org]] office application suite and the [[GIMP]] image editor.

The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by [[Linus Torvalds]]. The main supporting [[Userland (computing)|Userland]] in the form of system tools and libraries from the [[GNU Project]] (announced in 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]]) is the basis for the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s preferred name ''[[GNU/Linux naming controversy|GNU/Linux]]''.<ref name="lsag">{{ cite book | url = http://www.tldp.org/LDP/sag/html/sag.html#GNU-OR-NOT | title = Linux System Administrator's Guide | chapter = 1.1 | edition = version 0.9 | year = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | first = Alex | last = Weeks }}</ref><ref name="gnu_homepage">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/ |title=The GNU Operating System |publisher=Gnu.org |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>

==History==
{{double image|right|Richard Matthew Stallman cropped.jpeg|150|Linus Torvalds cropped.jpeg|150|[[Richard Stallman]], left, founder of the [[GNU project]], and [[Linus Torvalds]], right, principal author of the [[Linux kernel]]}}
{{See also|History of Linux}}

===Unix===
The [[Unix]] operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at [[AT&T]]'s Bell Laboratories in the [[United States]] by [[Ken Thompson]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], [[Douglas McIlroy]], and [[Joe Ossanna]]. Unix derived its name as a joke and reference to an experimental operating system that was slow and ineffective called [[MULTICS]]. It was first released in 1971 and was initially entirely written in [[assembly language]], a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language [[C (programming language)|C]] by [[Dennis Ritchie]], (with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier [[porting|portability]] to different computer platforms. With a legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system's source code, Unix quickly grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses.

===GNU===
The [[GNU Project]], started in 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]], had the goal of creating a "''complete Unix-compatible software system''" composed entirely of [[free software]]. Work began in 1984.<ref name="gnu_announce">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html |title=About the GNU Project – Initial Announcement |publisher=Gnu.org |date=2008-06-23 |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> Later, in 1985, Stallman created the [[Free Software Foundation]] and wrote the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, [[compiler]]s, [[text editor]]s, a [[Unix shell]], and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as [[device driver]]s, [[daemon (computer software)|daemons]], and the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] were stalled and incomplete.<ref name="gnu history">{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/gnu-history.html |title=Overview of the GNU System |publisher=Gnu.org |date= |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html | title = Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate }}</ref>

===MINIX===
[[File:AndrewTanenbaum.JPG|thumb|[[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]], author of the [[MINIX]] operating system]]

[[MINIX]] was an inexpensive minimal [[Unix-like]] operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]]. As of [[MINIX 3|version 3, MINIX]] is [[free software|free]] and redesigned also for “serious” use.

In 1991 while attending the [[University of Helsinki]], Torvalds, curious about the operating systems <ref>{{ cite newsgroup | title = What would you like to see most in minix? | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | id = 1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI | url = http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b | last = Torvalds | first = Linus | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX limiting it to educational use only (which prevented any commercial use) began to work on his own operating system which eventually became [[Linux kernel|Linux]].

Torvalds began the development of Linux on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later Linux matured and it became possible for Linux to be developed under itself.<ref>{{cite news | title = Chicken and egg: How was the first linux gcc binary created?? | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | url = http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux/msg/4ae6db18d3f49b0e }}</ref> Also GNU applications replaced all MINIX ones because, with code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling operating system. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux available for commercial use, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.<ref>{{cite web | title = Release notes for Linux v0.12 | first = Linus | last = Torvalds | url = http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12 | authorlink = Linus Torvalds | date = 1992-01-05 | accessdate = 2007-07-23 | publisher = Linux Kernel Archives | quote = The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the “you may not distribute it for money” condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same") mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect as of the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it. }}</ref> Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.<ref name="gnu history"/>

===Commercial and popular uptake===
{{Main|Linux adoption}}
Today Linux distributions are used in numerous domains, from [[embedded system]]s to [[supercomputer]]s,<ref>{{cite web | title = Linux system development on an embedded device | url = http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-embdev.html | first = Anand | last = Santhanam | coauthors = Vishal Kulkarni | work = DeveloperWorks | publisher = IBM | date = 1 March 2002 | accessdate = 2007-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Lyons | first = Daniel| title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> and have secured a place in [[server (computing)|server]] installations with the popular [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] application stack.<ref>{{cite web| last = Schrecker| first = Michael| title = Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP | url = http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/webbuilding/page5067.cfm | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been expanding.<ref name="galli2007">{{cite news | first=Peter | last=Galli | coauthors= | title=Vista Aiding Linux Desktop, Strategist Says | date=2007-08-08 | publisher=Ziff Davis Enterprise Inc. | url =http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Linux-and-Open-Source/Vista-Aiding-Linux-Desktop-Strategist-Says/ | work =eWEEK | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="paul2007">{{cite news | first=Ryan | last=Paul | coauthors= | title=Linux market share set to surpass Win 98, OS X still ahead of Vista | date=2007-09-03 | publisher=Ars Technica, LLC | url =http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070903-linux-marketshare-set-to-surpass-windows-98.html | work =Ars Technica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="beer2007">{{cite news | first=Stan | last=Beer | coauthors= | title=Vista to play second fiddle to XP until 2009: Gartner | date=2007-01-23 | publisher=iTWire | url =http://www.itwire.com.au/content/view/8842/53/ | work =iTWire | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="applications2007">{{cite web|url=http://marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref><ref name="xitimonitor2007">{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Vista slowly continues its growth; Linux more aggressive than Mac OS during the summer | date=2007-09-24 | publisher=AT Internet/XiTi.com | url =http://www.xitimonitor.com/en-us/internet-users-equipment/operating-systems-august-2007/index-1-2-7-107.html | work =XiTiMonitor | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref><ref name="globalstats2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.w3counter.com/globalstats.php |title=Global Web Stats |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-10 |work=W3Counter |publisher=Awio Web Services LLC }}</ref><ref name="zeitgeist2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist/zeitgeist-jun04.html |title=June 2004 Zeitgeist |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2004-08-12 |work=Google Press Center |publisher=Google Inc. }}</ref> They have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/Brazils-love-of-Linux/2009-1042_3-6245409.html | title = Brazil's love of Linux | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3445805.stm | title = Brazil falls in love with Linux | accessdate = 2009-02-21 | work=BBC News | date=2004-02-01}}</ref> News of the Russian military creating their own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.osor.eu/news/lv-minister-open-standards-improve-efficiency-and-transparency | title = LV: Minister: "Open standards improve efficiency and transparency" | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref> The Indian state of [[Kerala]] has gone so far as to make it mandatory for all state high schools to run Linux on their computers.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/sep2006/gb20060921_463452.htm | title = Linux Spreads its Wings in India | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-shuts-windows-schools-to-use-only-linux/280323/0 | title = Kerala shuts windows, schools to use only Linux | accessdate = 2009-06-22 }}</ref> [[People's Republic of China|China]] uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its [[Loongson]] processor family to achieve technology independence.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mdronline.com/watch/watch_Issue.asp?Volname=Issue+%23110308&on=1 | title = China’s Microprocessor Dilemma | accessdate = 2009-04-15 | publisher = [[Microprocessor Report]] }}</ref> In [[Spain]] some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like [[gnuLinEx]] in [[Extremadura]] and [[Guadalinex]] in [[Andalusia]]. [[France]] and [[Germany]] have also taken steps towards the adoption of Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/48925_linuxop01.shtml | title = Some countries are choosing Linux systems over Microsoft | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }}</ref>

Linux distributions have also become popular with the newly founded [[netbook]] market, with many devices such as the [[Eee pc|ASUS Eee PC]] and [[Aspire One|Acer Aspire One]] shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

===Current development===
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of [[Linux distribution]]s.

==Design==
A Linux-based system is a modular [[Unix-like]] operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a [[monolithic kernel]], the [[Linux kernel]], which handles process control, networking, and [[peripheral]] and [[file system]] access. [[Device drivers]] are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.

Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU [[userland (computing)|userland]] is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the [[C standard library|C library]], a popular [[shell (computing)|shell]], and many of the common [[Unix tool]]s which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The [[graphical user interface]] (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the [[X Window System]].

===User interface===
{{See also|User interface}}

Users can control a Linux-based system through a [[command line interface]] (or CLI), a [[graphical user interface]] (or GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware (this is common for embedded systems). For desktop systems, the default mode is usually graphical user interface, where the CLI is available through [[terminal emulator]] windows or on a separate [[virtual console (PC)|virtual console]].

On desktop machines, [[KDE]], [[GNOME]], and [[Xfce]] are the most popular user interfaces,<ref>{{cite web | title = Debian popularity-contest program information | url = http://times.debian.net/1092-30000-popcon-submissions }}</ref> though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the [[X Window System]] (often simply called "X"), which provides [[network transparency]], enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

Other GUIs include [[X window manager]]s such as [[FVWM]], [[Enlightenment (window manager)|Enlightenment]], and [[Window Maker]]. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. This is a more [[minimalism (computing)|minimalist]] goal than KDE, GNOME et al., which are termed [[desktop environment]]s.

A Linux system typically provides a CLI through a [[shell (computing)|shell]], which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.

Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU [[userland (computing)|userland]], use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple [[inter-process communication]]. A graphical [[terminal emulator]] program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.

==Development==
[[File:Unix history.svg|thumb|220px|A summarized history of [[Unix-like]] operating systems showing Linux's origins. Note that despite similar architectural designs and concepts being shared as part of the [[POSIX]] standard, Linux does not share any non-free source code with the original [[Unix]] or [[MINIX]].]]
{{Main|Linux distribution}}

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the [[Linux kernel]] and other components are [[free software|free]] and [[open source software]]. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.<ref name="MarketShare09NOV">{{cite web|url = http://marketshare.hitslink.com/operating-system-market-share.aspx?qprid=8|title = Operating System Market Share|accessdate = 2009-12-11|last = Operating System Market Share |authorlink = |year = 2009|month = November}}</ref>
Some [[free software license|free]] and [[open source license|open source]] software licenses are based on the principle of [[copyleft]], a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the [[GNU GPL]], is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the [[GNU project]].

Linux based distributions are intended by developers for [[interoperability]] with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to [[POSIX]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ukuug.org/newsletter/linux-newsletter/linux@uk21/posix.shtml | title = POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-2) Certification }}</ref> [[Single UNIX Specification|SUS]],<ref>{{cite web | title = How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems? | url = http://www.debian.org/doc/FAQ/ch-compat.en.html#s-otherunices | work = Debian FAQ | publisher = the Debian project }}</ref> [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], and [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/0131 | title = Certifying Linux }}</ref>

Free software projects, although developed in a [[collaboration|collaborative]] fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a [[Linux distribution]].

A [[Linux distribution]], commonly called a "distro", is a project that manages a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a [[package manager]] such as [[Synaptic Package Manager|Synaptic]], [[YAST]], or [[Portage (software)|Portage]] to install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.

===Community===
{{See also|Free software community|Linux Users Group}}

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, [[Debian]] being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as [[Red Hat]] does with [[Fedora (Linux distribution)|Fedora]].

In many cities and regions, local associations known as [[Linux Users Group]]s (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many [[Internet]] communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have [[IRC]] chatrooms or [[newsgroup]]s. [[Online forum]]s are another means for support, with notable examples being [[LinuxQuestions.org]] and the [[Gentoo Linux|Gentoo]] forums. Linux distributions host [[mailing list]]s; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print [[magazine]]s on Linux often include [[cover disk]]s including software or even complete Linux distributions.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/dvd/ | title=Linux Format DVD contents | author=[[Linux Format]] | accessdate=2008-01-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.linux-magazine.com/resources/current_issue | title=Current Issue | author=[[Linux Magazine|linux-magazine.com]] | accessdate=2008-01-17 }}</ref>

Although [[Linux distributions]] are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of [[free software]]. An analysis of Linux showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to the traditional, open source community.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://apcmag.com/linux-now-75-corporate.htm | title=75% of Linux code now written by paid developers
| author=|work=[[APC (magazine)|APC]] | accessdate=2010-01-22 }}</ref> Some of the major corporations that contribute include [[Dell]], [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Novell]], [[Nokia]]. A number of corporations, notably [[Red Hat]], have built their entire business around Linux distributions.

The [[free software licenses]], on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as [[symbiosis|symbiotic]]. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.

===Programming on Linux===
Most Linux distributions support dozens of [[programming language]]s. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the [[GNU toolchain]], which includes the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC) and the [[GNU build system]]. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], and [[Fortran]]. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] compilers for Linux include the [[Intel C++ Compiler]], [[Sun Studio (software)|Sun Studio]], and IBM XL [[C (programming language)|C]]/[[C++]] Compiler. [[BASIC]] is supported in such forms as [[Gambas]], [[FreeBASIC]], and [[XBasic]].

Most distributions also include support for [[PHP]], [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and other [[dynamic programming language|dynamic languages]]. While not as common, Linux also supports [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] via the [[Mono (software)|Mono]] project, sponsored by [[Novell]], and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]. A number of [[Java Virtual Machine]]s and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM ([[HotSpot]]), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like [[Kaffe]].

The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]]. These projects are based on the [[GTK+]] and [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]s, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of [[Integrated development environment]]s available including [[Anjuta]], [[Code::Blocks]], [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]], [[KDevelop]], [[Lazarus (software)|Lazarus]], [[MonoDevelop]], [[NetBeans]], [[Qt Creator]] and [[Omnis Studio]] while the long-established editors [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] and [[Emacs]] remain popular.<ref>{{cite web | first = Joe | last = Brockmeier | title = A survey of Linux Web development tools | url = http://programming.linux.com/programming/05/10/03/1828224.shtml?tid=63&tid=47 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref>

==Uses==
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: [[computer architecture]] support, [[Embedded Linux|embedded systems]], stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only [[free software]]. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | accessdate = 2006-05-19 }}</ref>

Linux is a widely [[porting|ported]] operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of [[computer architecture]]s: in the hand-held [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-based [[iPAQ]] and the [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] [[IBM]] [[IBM System z9|System z9]], [[IBM System z9|System z10]] in devices ranging from [[mobile phone]]s to [[supercomputer]]s.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.freeos.com/articles/4737/ | title = If I could re-write Linux | first = Prakash | last = Advani | date = 8 February 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-23 | publisher = freeos.com }}</ref> Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The [[ELKS]] kernel [[fork (software development)|fork]] can run on [[Intel 8086]] or [[Intel 80286]] [[16-bit]] microprocessors, while the [[µClinux]] kernel fork may run on systems without a [[memory management unit]]. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as [[Macintosh]] computers (with both [[PowerPC]] and [[Intel]] processors), [[Personal digital assistant|PDAs]], [[video game console]]s, [[Digital audio player|portable music players]], and [[mobile phone]]s.

There are several industry associations and hardware [[conference]]s{{dn}} devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as [[FreedomHEC]].

===Desktop===
[[File:Gnome-2.28.png|thumb|[[GNOME]]]]
[[File:KDE 4.png|thumb|[[KDE]]]]
[[File:Xfce-4.4.png|thumb|[[Xfce]]]]
[[File:LXDE desktop full.png|thumb|[[LXDE]]]]
{{Main|Desktop Linux}}

The popularity of Linux on standard desktops (and laptops) has been increasing over the years.<ref>[http://www.linux.org/info/index.html What is Linux]</ref> Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment. The two most popular such environments are [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]], both of which are mature and support a wide variety of languages.

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007 [[Con Kolivas]] accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linux: why I quit|url=http://apcmag.com/node/6735/|accessdate=2008-01-18|date=2007-07-24|work=APC Magazine|publisher=ACP Magazines}}</ref> Since then a significant effort has been expended improving the desktop experience. Projects such as [[upstart]] aim for a faster boot time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Performance of Java on Ubuntu vs Windows|url=http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=java_vm_performance&num=1}}</ref> In the field of [[Linux gaming|gaming]], the Linux desktop still lags behind Windows.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=908&num=1 |title=A Synopsis Of Linux Graphics Drivers |author=Michael Larabel |date=9 November 2007 |accessdate=31 March 2009}}</ref> However, there are [[Linux gaming#Commercial games|several companies]] that do port their own or other companies' games to Linux.

Many types of applications available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a [[free software]] application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating systems, or that application will have a version that works on Linux (such as [[Skype]]). Furthermore, the [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. [[CrossOver]] is a proprietary solution based on the open source [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project that supports running Windows versions of [[Microsoft Office]], [[Intuit]] applications such as [[Quicken]] and [[QuickBooks]], [[Adobe Photoshop]] versions through CS2, and many popular games such as ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' and ''[[Team Fortress 2]]''. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as [[desktop publishing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freeos.com/articles/2540/ |title=Microsoft Office for Linux? |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Advani |first=Prakash |date=2000-10-27 |work=FreeOS |publisher=FreeOS Technologies (I) Pvt. Ltd. }}</ref> and [[professional audio]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arstechnica.com/guides/tweaks/linux-audio.ars |title=Editing audio in Linux |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Smith-Heisters |first=Ian |date=2005-10-11 |work=Ars Technica |publisher=Ars Technica, LLC }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/linux-its-not/apr-07/27458 |title=Linux: It's Not Just For Computer Geeks Anymore |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=Lumma |first=Carl |date=April 2007 |work=Keyboard Magazine |publisher=New Bay Media, LLC. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb04/articles/mirrorimage.htm |title=Using Linux For Recording & Mastering |accessdate=2008-02-03 |last=James |first=Daniel |date=February 2004 |work=Sound On Sound |publisher=SOS Publications Group }}</ref> there is equivalent software available on Linux.

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example [[Mozilla Firefox]], and [[OpenOffice.org]] have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux (such as [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]], and [[GIMP]]) and, due to their popularity, were ported to other operating systems (including Windows and Mac OS X).

A growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iist.unu.edu/globaldesktop/ | title = The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities|accessdate = 2006-05-07 }}</ref> see [[List of proprietary software for Linux]]. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as [[Maya (software)|AutoDesk Maya]], Softimage XSI and [[Shake (software)|Apple Shake]], is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X.

The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to [[L10n|localize]]{{dn}} Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the [[Sinhalese language]] version of the [[Knoppix]] distribution was available significantly before [[Microsoft Windows XP]] was translated to Sinhalese.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} In this case the [[Lanka Linux User Group]] played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, [[linguist]]s, and local developers.

Installing new software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as [[Synaptic Package Manager]], [[PackageKit]], and [[Yellow dog Updater, Modified|Yum Extender]]. While major Linux distributions have extensive repositories (tens of thousands of packages), not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty, compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it's hardly needed in modern distributions.

===Servers, mainframes and supercomputers===
[[File:Server Linux.jpg|thumb|left|Servers designed for Linux]]
[[Linux distributions]] have long been used as [[server (computing)|server]] operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; [[Netcraft]] reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their [[web server]]s.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rackspace Most Reliable Hoster in September | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/10/07/rackspace_most_reliable_hoster_in_september.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 7 October 2006 | accessdate = 2006-11-01}}</ref> (As of June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, [[FreeBSD]] three of ten, and [[Microsoft]] two of ten;<ref>{{cite web | title = Aplus.Net is the Most Reliable Hosting Company Site in June 2008 | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2008/07/07/aplusnet_is_the_most_reliable_hosting_company_site_in_june_2008.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 7 July 2008 | accessdate = 2008-07-28}}</ref> as of February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, [[FreeBSD]] two of ten, and [[Microsoft]] one of ten.<ref>{{cite web | title = Most Reliable Hosting Company Sites in February 2010 | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2010/03/01/most_reliable_hosting_company_sites_in_february_2010.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = 1 March 2010 | accessdate = 2010-03-23}}</ref>)

[[File:JaguarXT5.jpg|thumb|The [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]'s [[National Center for Computational Sciences#Jaguar|Jaguar supercomputer]], as of November 2009 the world's fastest supercomputer. It uses the [[Unicos#Variants|Cray Linux Environment]] as its operating system.<ref name="CrayJag">{{cite web|url = http://www.top500.org/system/10184|title = Jaguar|accessdate = 2009-11-18|last = TOP500.Org|authorlink = |year = 2009}}</ref><ref name="NCCSJag">{{cite web|url = http://www.nccs.gov/computing-resources/jaguar/|title = Jaguar|accessdate = 2009-11-18|last = National Center for Computational Sciences|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = October}}</ref>]]
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] server-software combination (Linux, [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]], [[MySQL]], [[Perl]]/[[PHP]]/[[Python (programming language)|Python]]) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

[[Linux distributions]] have become increasingly popular on [[mainframe computer|mainframes]] in the last decade due to pricing, compared to other mainframe operating systems. In December 2009, computer giant [[IBM]] reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.<ref name="The Register">{{cite web|author=Timothy Prickett Morgan|url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/12/11/ibm_linux_only_mainframe/ |title=IBM punts Linux-only mainframes Big MIPS, deep discounts |publisher=The Register |date= |accessdate=2009-07-02}}</ref>

[[Linux distribution]]s are also commonly used as [[operating systems]] for [[supercomputer]]s: as of November 2009, out of the [[TOP500|top 500]] systems, 446 (89.2%) run a Linux distribution.<ref name="top500_osfam">{{cite web|author=TOP500.org |url=http://www.top500.org/stats/list/34/osfam |title=Operating system Family share for 11/2009 &#124; TOP500 Supercomputing Sites |publisher=Top500.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-29}}</ref>

Linux was also selected as the operating system for the world's most powerful supercomputer, IBM's [[IBM Sequoia|Sequoia]] which will become operational in 2011.<ref name="IBM">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/26599.wss|title=20 Petaflop Sequoia Supercomputer}}</ref>

===Embedded devices===
{{See also|Embedded Linux|Linux devices}}
[[File:T-Mobile G1 launch event 2.jpg|thumb|An [[HTC Dream]] running [[Android (operating system)|Android]]]]
Due to its low cost and ease of modification, an [[embedded Linux]] is often used in [[embedded systems]]. Linux has become a major competitor of [[Symbian OS]] which is used in the majority of smartphones—16.7% of [[smartphone]]s sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=197000995 | title = The Palm OS Clings To Life }}</ref>—and it is an alternative to the proprietary [[Windows CE]] and [[Palm OS]] operating systems on [[mobile device]]s. Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like [[Nokia N810]], [[Openmoko]]'s [[Neo1973]], Motorola RAZR2 v8, [[Motorola ROKR E8]], Motorola MING series, Motorola ZINE and [[Google Android]]. The popular [[TiVo]] digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp | title = TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code | accessdate = 2006-12-12 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070519150730/http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp |archivedate=2007-05-19}}</ref> Several network [[Firewall (computing)|firewall]] and [[router]] standalone products, including several from [[Cisco]]/[[Linksys]], use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The [[Korg OASYS]], Roland RD-700GX and the [[Yamaha Motif|Yamaha Motif XS]] [[music workstation]]s also run Linux.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mvista.com/downloads/Case_study_MontaVista_Linux_and_Yamaha.pdf |title=Case Study: How MontaVista Linux helped Yamaha developers make a great product greater |accessdate=2007-08-26}}</ref> Furthermore, Linux is used in the leading [[stage lighting]] control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.highend.com/products/controllers/Wholehog3Console.asp | title=Embedded Linux: FlyingPigs the WholeHogIII runs on Linux}}</ref>

===Market share and uptake===
{{Main|Linux adoption}}
{{OS marketshare|align=right}}
{{See also|Usage share of operating systems|List of Linux computers}}
Many quantitative studies of [[free software|free]] / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.<ref>{{cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html | title = Why Open Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.techweb.com/wire/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=55800522 | title = Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008 | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref>

[[International Data Corporation|IDC]]'s Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.<ref name="Linux-watch.com IDC's Q1 2007 report">{{cite web|url=http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html |title=─ IDC Q1 2007 report |publisher=Linux-watch.com |date=2007-05-29 |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref> This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies and did not include server hardware purchased separately and had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEO [[Steve Ballmer]] admitted that 60% of web-servers run Linux versus 40% that run [[Windows Server]].<ref name="PC World September 2008"/>

Companies have, mostly based on web server statistics, estimated that the desktop market share of Linux range from less than 1% to 2.14%. In comparison, [[List of Microsoft operating systems|Microsoft operating systems]] hold more than 85%.<ref name="galli2007"/><ref name="paul2007"/><ref name="beer2007"/><ref name="applications2007"/><ref name="xitimonitor2007"/><ref name="globalstats2007"/><ref name="zeitgeist2004"/><ref name="Byfield04May09">{{cite web|url = http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/osrc/article.php/12068_3818696_2/Linux-Desktop-Market-Share-Greater-Than-One-Percent.htm|title = Linux Desktop Market Share: Greater Than One Percent?|accessdate = 2009-05-06|last = Byfield|first = Bruce|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = May}}</ref><ref name="W3CCounterJuly09">{{cite web|url = http://www.w3counter.com/globalstats.php|title = W3Counter – Global Webstats|accessdate = 2009-08-22|last = Awio Web Services|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = August}}</ref>

The frictional cost of switching operating systems, lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for [[Microsoft Windows]], and work by Microsoft to actively prevent large-scale installations have been three factors that have inhibited adoption. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www-306.ibm.com/software/info/features/feb152005/ | title = Why customers are flocking to Linux }}</ref> low cost, and freedom from [[vendor lock-in]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ca.com/za/news/2005/20051010_linux.htm| title = The rise and rise of Linux }}</ref>

Also most recently Google has begun to fund [[Wine (software)|Wine]], which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.<ref>{{cite mailing list |last=Kegel |first=Dan |url=http://article.gmane.org/gmane.comp.emulators.wine.devel/56872 |title=Google's support for Wine in 2007 |date=2008-02-14 |mailinglist=wine-devel |accessdate=2009-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://code.google.com/opensource/wine.html
|title=Open Source Patches: Wine
|publisher=Google
|accessdate=2008-09-07
}}</ref>

The [[OLPC XO-1|XO laptop]] project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=mission|url=http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml|publisher=laptop.org|accessdate=2008-08-14}}</ref> [[Google]], [[Red Hat]], and [[eBay]] are major supporters of the project.<ref>[http://www-static.laptop.org/vision/progress/ One Laptop per Child (OLPC), a low-cost, connected laptop for the world's children's education]</ref> While the XO will also have a Windows option, it will be primarily deployed using [[Sugar (desktop environment)|Sugar]], a desktop environment for [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]] Linux.

In the film industry, Linux has been the platform of choice for several years. The first major film produced on Linux servers was [[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]] in 1997. Since then major studios like [[Dreamworks Animation]], [[Pixar]] and [[Industrial Light & Magic]] have moved to Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/5472 | title = Industry of Change: Linux Storms Hollywood | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://video.fosdem.org/2008/maintracks/FOSDEM2008-tuxwithshades.ogg | title = Tux with Shades, Linux in Hollywood | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref> According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxmovies.org/ | title = LinuxMovies.org – Advancing Linux Motion Picture Technology | accessdate = 2009-03-11 }}</ref>

==Copyright and naming==
{{See also|SCO-Linux controversies}}
The Linux and most GNU software are [[software license|licensed]] under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. Other key components of a software system may use other licenses; many libraries use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the [[X Window System]] uses the [[MIT License]].

Torvalds states that the Linux will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3. He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in [[digital rights management]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/9/25/161 | title=Re: GPLv3 Position Statement | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-09-25 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref> and it would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.<ref>[http://www.linux-watch.com/news/NS3301105877.html Linux-Watch.com – Keeping an Eye on the Penguin]</ref>

A 2001 study of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million [[source lines of code]].<ref name = "estimating_size"/> Using the [[COCOMO|Constructive Cost Model]], the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional [[proprietary software|proprietary]] means, it would have cost about ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|1080000000|2000}}|0}} ({{CURRENTISOYEAR}} US dollars) to develop in the United States.<ref name = "estimating_size">{{cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | date = 2002-07-29 | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html | title = More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref>

Most of the code (71%) was written in the [[C (programming language)|C]] [[computer programming|programming]] [[programming language|language]], but many other languages were used, including [[C++]], [[assembly language]], [[Perl]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Fortran]], and various [[shell script]]ing languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.<ref name = "estimating_size"/>

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).<ref>{{cite web | first = Juan José | last = Amor | coauthors = et al. | date = 17 June 2007 | url = https://penta.debconf.org/~joerg/attachments/33-measuring_etch_slides.pdf | title = Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0 | accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref> This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|7170186240|2007}}|0}} ({{CURRENTISOYEAR}} US dollars) to develop by conventional means. <!-- original paper quoted 5358000000 euros, but Wikipedia does not have an inflation calculator for euros; converted to USD via June 17 2007 exchange rate as provided by http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/exchform.html and double-checked against other sources of historical exchange rates ... it is also more useful to quote the number in dollars, for comparison to other dollar amounts quoted in this article, e.g. the 2001 study above -->

In the United States, the name ''Linux'' is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://assignments.uspto.gov/assignments/q?db=tm&rno=1916230 | title = U.S. Reg No: 1916230 | publisher = United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark ''Linux'', and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/9065 | title = Linux Timeline | publisher = Linux Journal | date = 31 May 2006 }}</ref> The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the [[Linux Mark Institute]]. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,<ref>{{cite news
| author = Neil McAllister
| title = Linus gets tough on Linux trademark
| url = http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/09/05/36OPopenent_1.html
| work = [[InfoWorld]]
| date = 2005-09-05
| accessdate = 2008-02-24
}}</ref> but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.linuxmark.org
| title = Linux Mark Institute
| accessdate = 2008-02-24
| quote = LMI has restructured its sublicensing program. Our new sublicense agreement is: Free — approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual — sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your organization ceases to use its mark; Worldwide — one sublicense covers your use of the mark anywhere in the world
}}</ref>

===GNU/Linux===
{{Main|GNU/Linux naming controversy}}

The [[Free Software Foundation]] views Linux distributions which use GNU software as [[GNU variants]] and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as ''GNU/Linux'' or ''a Linux-based GNU system''.<ref name="Stallman01">{{cite web | title = Linux and the GNU Project | url = http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html | first = Richard | last = Stallman | authorlink = Richard Stallman | date = 2007-03-03 | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | publisher = Free Software Foundation }}</ref> The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as ''Linux'', as do many large Linux distributions (e.g. [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]<ref>{{cite web | title = About Us | url = http://www.ubuntu.com/aboutus | date = 2010-11-05 | accessdate = 2010-11-05 | publisher = Canonical Ltd. | quote = Ubuntu has become one of the most highly regarded Linux distributions with millions of users around the world.}}</ref>, [[SuSE]] Linux or [[Mandriva Linux]]). Some distributions use ''GNU/Linux'' (particularly notable is [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]], on which Ubuntu is based), but the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The naming issue remains controversial.

==See also==
{{portal|Linux}}
{{portal|Free software}}
* [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]
* [[Comparison of Linux distributions]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
* [[Comparison of Windows and Linux]]
* [[Comparison of Windows versions]]
* [[List of operating systems]]
* [[Usage share of operating systems|Market share of operating systems]]
* [[Comparison of open source and closed source]]

==References==
{{clear}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Weinberg | first = Bill
| title = Uniting Mobile Linux Application Platforms
| publisher = LinuxPundit.com
| date = July 2008
| page = 18
| url = http://www.linuxpundit.com/cv/docs/Platforms_WP_LP.pdf
}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
* {{dmoz|Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux|Linux}}
* [http://www.gnu.org/ GNU Project website]
* [http://www.makelinux.net/system/new Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals]
* [http://www.linux.com/ Linux.com website]
* [http://www.tldp.org/ Linux Documentation Project]
* [http://www.linux-foundation.org/ Linux Foundation]
* [http://www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]
* [http://www.linuxmark.org/ Linux Mark Institute] (manages the Linux trade mark)
* [http://www.linux.org/ Linux.org website]

{{Linux}}
{{Unix-like}}
{{FOSS}}
{{Operating system}}
{{Linux distributions}}

[[Category:1991 software]]
[[Category:Linux| ]]
[[Category:Computing platforms]]
[[Category:Cross-platform software]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|hu}}
[[ace:Linux]]
[[af:Linux]]
[[als:Linux]]
[[am:ሊኑክስ]]
[[ar:جنو/لينكس]]
[[an:Linux]]
[[ast:Linux]]
[[az:Linuks]]
[[bn:লিনাক্স]]
[[zh-min-nan:Linux]]
[[be:Linux]]
[[be-x-old:Linux]]
[[bar:Linux]]
[[bs:Linux]]
[[br:Linux]]
[[bg:Линукс]]
[[ca:GNU/Linux]]
[[ceb:Linux]]
[[cs:Linux]]
[[co:Linux]]
[[cy:Linux]]
[[da:Linux]]
[[de:Linux]]
[[et:Linux]]
[[el:Linux]]
[[es:GNU/Linux]]
[[eo:Linukso]]
[[eu:Linux]]
[[fa:لینوکس]]
[[fr:Linux]]
[[ga:Linux]]
[[gl:Linux]]
[[ko:리눅스]]
[[hy:Լինուքս]]
[[hi:लिनक्स]]
[[hsb:Linux]]
[[hr:Linux]]
[[io:Linux]]
[[ilo:GNU/Linux]]
[[id:Linux]]
[[ia:Linux]]
[[zu:Linux]]
[[it:Linux]]
[[he:לינוקס]]
[[jv:Linux]]
[[kn:ಲಿನಕ್ಸ್]]
[[ka:ლინუქსი]]
[[csb:Linux]]
[[kk:Linux]]
[[ht:Linux]]
[[ku:Linux]]
[[lo:ລິນຸກຊ໌]]
[[la:Linux]]
[[lv:Linux]]
[[lb:Linux]]
[[lt:Linux]]
[[li:Linux]]
[[jbo:linuks]]
[[lmo:Linux]]
[[hu:Linux]]
[[mk:Линукс]]
[[mg:Linux]]
[[ml:ഗ്നു/ലിനക്സ്]]
[[mr:लिनक्स]]
[[arz:لينكس]]
[[ms:Linux]]
[[mn:Линукс]]
[[nl:Linux]]
[[ne:लिनक्स]]
[[new:लाइनक्स]]
[[ja:Linux]]
[[no:GNU/Linux]]
[[nn:Linux]]
[[oc:Linux]]
[[uz:GNU/Linux]]
[[nds:Linux]]
[[pl:Linux]]
[[pt:Linux]]
[[kaa:Linux]]
[[ksh:Linux (Bedriefsystem)]]
[[ro:GNU/Linux]]
[[qu:Linux]]
[[ru:Linux]]
[[sah:Linux]]
[[sc:Linux]]
[[stq:Linux]]
[[sq:Linux]]
[[scn:Linux]]
[[simple:Linux]]
[[sk:Linux]]
[[sl:Linux]]
[[szl:Linux]]
[[so:Linux]]
[[ckb:گنو/لینوکس]]
[[sr:Линукс]]
[[sh:Linux]]
[[fi:Linux]]
[[sv:Linux]]
[[tl:Linux]]
[[ta:க்னூ/லினக்சு]]
[[tt:Linux]]
[[te:లినక్సు]]
[[th:ลินุกซ์]]
[[tr:Linux]]
[[udm:Linux]]
[[uk:Лінукс]]
[[ur:لینکس]]
[[vec:Linux]]
[[vi:Linux]]
[[fiu-vro:Linux]]
[[wa:Linux]]
[[war:Linux]]
[[wo:Linux]]
[[yi:לינוקס]]
[[zh-yue:Linux]]
[[zea:Linux]]
[[bat-smg:Linux]]
[[zh:Linux]]
{{use mdy dates}}
{{use mdy dates}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}

Revision as of 11:45, 26 May 2010

Windows 7
File:Windows 7.png
Screenshot of Windows 7 Ultimate
DeveloperMicrosoft
OS familyMicrosoft Windows
Source modelClosed source / Shared source
Released to
manufacturing		RTM: July 22, 2009
Retail: October 22, 2009
Latest release6.1[1] (build 7600.16385.090713-1255[2])
/ October 22, 2009 (2009-10-22)[3]
Update methodWindows Update
PlatformsIA-32, x86-64
Kernel typeHybrid
LicenseMS-EULA
Official websiteOfficial website
Support status
Mainstream support
Articles in the series

Windows 7 is a version of Microsoft Windows, a series of operating systems produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, netbooks, tablet PCs, and media center PCs.[4] Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009,[5] and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009,[6] less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time. Windows 7 will be succeeded by Windows 8, which has no release date as of yet.

Unlike its predecessor, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista is already compatible.[7] Presentations given by Microsoft in 2008 focused on multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows Shell with a new taskbar, referred to as the Superbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup,[8] and performance improvements. Some applications that have been included with prior releases of Microsoft Windows, including Windows Calendar, Windows Mail, Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Photo Gallery, are not included in Windows 7;[9][10] most are instead offered separately at no charge as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite.[11]

Development

Main article: Development of Windows 7

Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP (codename Whistler) and Windows Server 2003. Major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed "Longhorn," was announced for 2003, delaying the development of Blackcomb.[12] By the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. After three major viruses exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time period in 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn's major development work on hold while developing new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn (Windows Vista) was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004. A number of features were cut from Longhorn.[13] Windows 7 is programmed in C, C++, and Assembly.[14]

Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006[15] and again Windows 7 in 2007.[16] In 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system.[17][18] There has been some confusion over naming the product Windows 7,[19] while versioning it as 6.1 to indicate its similar build to Vista and increase compatibility with applications that only check major version numbers,[20] similar to Windows 2000 and Windows XP both having 5.x version numbers.[21]

The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, build 6519.[22] At PDC 2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. Copies of Windows 7 build 6801 were distributed at the end of the conference; however, the demonstrated taskbar was disabled in this build.

On December 27, 2008, Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent.[23] According to a performance test by ZDNet,[24] Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas; including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents. Other areas did not beat XP; including PC Pro benchmarks for typical office activities and video editing, which remain identical to Vista and slower than XP.[25] On January 7, 2009, the 64-bit version of the Windows 7 Beta (build 7000) was leaked onto the web, with some torrents being infected with a trojan.[26][27] At CES 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the Windows 7 Beta, build 7000, had been made available for download to MSDN and TechNet subscribers in the format of an ISO image.[28] The Beta was to be publicly released January 9, 2009, and Microsoft initially planned for the download to be made available to 2.5 million people on this date. However, access to the downloads was delayed because of high traffic.[29] The download limit was also extended, initially until January 24, then again to February 10. People who did not complete downloading the beta had two extra days to complete the download. After February 12, unfinished downloads became unable to complete. Users could still obtain product keys from Microsoft to activate their copies of Windows 7 Beta, which expired on August 1, 2009. The release candidate, build 7100, has been available for MSDN and TechNet subscribers and Connect Program participants since April 30 and became available to the general public on May 5, 2009. It has also been leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent.[30] The release candidate is available in five languages and will expire on June 1, 2010, with shutdowns every two hours starting March 1, 2010.[31] Microsoft stated that Windows 7 would be released to the general public on October 22, 2009. Microsoft released Windows 7 to MSDN and Technet subscribers on August 6, 2009, at 10:00 a.m. PDT.[32] Microsoft announced that Windows 7, along with Windows Server 2008 R2, was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009. Windows 7 RTM is build 7600.16385, which was compiled on July 13, 2009, and was declared the final RTM build after passing all Microsoft's tests internally.[5]

Goals

Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that this version of Windows would be more "user-centric".[33] Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements.[34] Steven Sinofsky later expanded on this point, explaining in the Engineering Windows 7 blog that the company was using a variety of new tracing tools to measure the performance of many areas of the operating system on an ongoing basis, to help locate inefficient code paths and to help prevent performance regressions.[35]

Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP.[36] Speaking about Windows 7 on October 16, 2008, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer confirmed compatibility between Vista and Windows 7, indicating that Windows 7 would be a refined version of Windows Vista.[37]

Features

New and changed features

Main article: Features new to Windows 7
The new Action Center, which replaces Windows Security Center
When the action center detects a security threat, it displays a thumbnail with problems listed.

Windows 7 includes a number of new features, such as advances in touch and handwriting recognition, support for virtual hard disks, improved performance on multi-core processors,[38][39][40][41] improved boot performance, DirectAccess, and kernel improvements. Windows 7 adds support for systems using multiple heterogeneous graphics cards from different vendors (Heterogeneous Multi-adapter), a new version of Windows Media Center,[42] a Gadget for Windows Media Center, improved media features, the XPS Essentials Pack and Windows PowerShell being included, and a redesigned Calculator with multiline capabilities including Programmer and Statistics modes along with unit conversion. Many new items have been added to the Control Panel, including ClearType Text Tuner, Display Color Calibration Wizard, Gadgets, Recovery, Troubleshooting, Workspaces Center, Location and Other Sensors, Credential Manager, Biometric Devices, System Icons, and Display.[43] Windows Security Center has been renamed to Windows Action Center (Windows Health Center and Windows Solution Center in earlier builds), which encompasses both security and maintenance of the computer. The default setting for User Account Control in Windows 7 has been criticized for allowing untrusted software to be launched with elevated privileges by exploiting a trusted application.[44] Microsoft's Windows kernel engineer Mark Russinovich acknowledged the problem, but noted that there are other vulnerabilities that do not rely on the new setting.[45] Windows 7 also supports Mac-like RAW image viewing through the addition of WIC-enabled image decoders, which enables raw image thumbnails, previewing and metadata display in Windows Explorer, plus full-size viewing and slideshows in Windows Photo Viewer and Window Media Center.[46]

The taskbar has seen the biggest visual changes, where the Quick Launch toolbar has been replaced with pinning applications to the taskbar. Buttons for pinned applications are integrated with the task buttons. These buttons also enable the Jump Lists feature to allow easy access to common tasks.[47] The revamped taskbar also allows the reordering of taskbar buttons. To the far right of the system clock is a small rectangular button that serves as the Show desktop icon. This button is part of the new feature in Windows 7 called Aero Peek. Hovering over this button makes all visible windows transparent for a quick look at the desktop.[48] In touch-enabled displays such as touch screens, tablet PCs, etc., this button is slightly wider to accommodate being pressed with a finger.[49] Clicking this button minimizes all windows, and clicking it a second time restores them. Additionally, there is a feature named Aero Snap, that automatically maximizes a window when it is dragged to either the top or left/right edges of the screen, similar to Linux.[50] This also allows users to snap documents or files on either side of the screen to compare them. When a user moves windows that are maximized, the system restores their previous state automatically. This functionality is also accomplished with keyboard shortcuts. Unlike in Windows Vista, window borders and the taskbar do not turn opaque when a window is maximized with Windows Aero applied. Instead, they remain translucent.

The Windows 7 taskbar.

For developers, Windows 7 includes a new networking API with support for building SOAP-based web services in native code (as opposed to .NET-based WCF web services),[51] new features to shorten application install times, reduced UAC prompts, simplified development of installation packages,[52] and improved globalization support through a new Extended Linguistic Services API.[53] At WinHEC 2008 Microsoft announced that color depths of 30-bit and 48-bit would be supported in Windows 7 along with the wide color gamut scRGB (which for HDMI 1.3 can be converted and output as xvYCC). The video modes supported in Windows 7 are 16-bit sRGB, 24-bit sRGB, 30-bit sRGB, 30-bit with extended color gamut sRGB, and 48-bit scRGB.[54][55] Microsoft has also implemented better support for solid-state drives,[56] including the new TRIM command, and Windows 7 is able to identify a solid-state drive uniquely. Microsoft is planning to support USB 3.0 in a subsequent patch, support not being included in the initial release due to delays in the finalization of the standard.[57]

Internet Spades, Internet Backgammon and Internet Checkers, which were removed from Windows Vista, were restored in Windows 7. Windows 7 includes Internet Explorer 8 and Windows Media Player 12.

Wikinews has related news:

Users are also able to disable many more Windows components than was possible in Windows Vista. New additions to this list of components include Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center, Windows Search, and the Windows Gadget Platform.[58] Windows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden, Heritage, Landscape, Quirky, Raga, Savanna, and Sonata.[59] A new version of Microsoft Virtual PC, newly renamed as Windows Virtual PC was made available for Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions.[60] It allows multiple Windows environments, including Windows XP Mode, to run on the same machine. Windows XP Mode runs Windows XP in a virtual machine and redirects displayed applications running in Windows XP to the Windows 7 desktop.[61] Furthermore, Windows 7 supports the mounting of a virtual hard disk (VHD) as a normal data storage, and the bootloader delivered with Windows 7 can boot the Windows system from a VHD, only in the Professional and Ultimate editions however.[62] The Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) of Windows 7 is also enhanced to support real-time multimedia application including video playback and 3D games, thus allowing use of DirectX 10 in remote desktop environments.[63] The three application limit, previously present in the Windows Vista Starter Edition, has been removed from Windows 7.[64]

Removed features

Main article: List of features removed in Windows 7

A number of capabilities and certain programs that were a part of Windows Vista are no longer present or have been changed, resulting in the removal of certain functionality. These include the classic Start Menu user interface, some taskbar features, Windows Explorer features, Windows Media Player features, Windows Ultimate Extras and InkBall. Four applications bundled with Windows Vista — Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie Maker, Windows Calendar[65] and Windows Mail — are not included with Windows 7, but applications with mostly similar functionality are instead available for free in a separate package called Windows Live Essentials which can be found on the Microsoft website.

Antitrust regulatory attention

As with other Microsoft operating systems, Windows 7 is being studied by United States federal regulators who oversee the company's operations following the 2001 United States v. Microsoft settlement. According to status reports filed, the three-member panel began assessing prototypes of the new operating system in February 2008. Michael Gartenberg, an analyst at Jupiter Research said that, "[Microsoft's] challenge for Windows 7 will be how can they continue to add features that consumers will want that also don't run afoul of regulators."[66]

Editions

In order to comply with European antitrust regulations, Microsoft has proposed the use of a "ballot" screen, allowing users to download a competing browser, thus removing the need for a version of Windows completely without Internet Explorer, as previously planned.[67] In response to criticism involving Windows 7 E and concerns from manufacturers about possible consumer confusion if a version of Windows 7 with Internet Explorer were shipped later after one without Internet Explorer, Microsoft announced that it would scrap the separate version for Europe and ship the standard upgrade and full packages worldwide.[68]

As with previous versions of Windows, an N version, which does not come with Windows Media Player, has been released in Europe, but only for sale directly from Microsoft sales websites and select others.[69]

Reception

In July 2009, in only eight hours, pre-orders of Windows 7 at Amazon.co.uk surpassed the demand Windows Vista had in its first 17 weeks.[70] It became the highest-grossing pre-order in Amazon's history, surpassing sales of the previous record holder, the seventh Harry Potter book.[71] After 36 hours, 64-bit versions of Windows 7 Professional and Ultimate editions sold out in Japan.[72] Two weeks after its release, it was announced that its market share had surpassed that of Snow Leopard, released two months previously as the most recent update to Apple's Mac OS X operating system.[73][74] According to Net Applications, Windows 7 reached a 4% market share in less than three weeks. In comparison, it took Windows Vista seven months to reach the same mark.[75] As of March 4, 2010, Microsoft announced that they had sold more than 90 million Windows 7 licenses.[76] Windows 7 has now sold more than 100 million copies in six months, making it Microsoft's fastest selling operating system.

Reviews of Windows 7 were mostly positive, praising its usability when compared to its predecessor, Windows Vista. CNET gave Windows 7 Home Premium a rating of 4.5 out of 5 stars,[77] stating that it "is more than what Vista should have been, [and] it's where Microsoft needed to go". PC Magazine rated it a 4 out of 5 saying that Windows 7 is a "big improvement" over Windows Vista, with fewer compatibility problems, a retooled taskbar, simpler home networking and faster start-up.[78] Maximum PC gave Windows 7 a rating of 9 out of 10 and called Windows 7 a "massive leap forward" in usability and security, and praised the new Taskbar as "worth the price of admission alone".[79] PC World called Windows 7 a "worthy successor" to Windows XP and said that speed benchmarks showed Windows 7 to be slightly faster than Windows Vista.[80] PC World also named Windows 7 one of the best products of the year.[81] In its review of Windows 7, Engadget said that Microsoft has taken a "strong step forward" with Windows 7 and reported that speed is one of Windows 7's major selling points particularly for the netbook sets.[82] LAPTOP Magazine gave Windows 7 a rating of 4 out of 5 stars and said that Windows 7 makes computing more intuitive, offered better overall performance including a "modest to dramatic" increase in battery life on laptop computers.[83] Techradar gave it a 5 star rating calling it the best version of Windows yet.[84] The New York Times,[85] USA Today,[86] The Wall Street Journal,[87] and The Telegraph[88] also gave Windows 7 favorable reviews.

Some Vista Ultimate users have expressed concerns over Windows 7 pricing and upgrade options.[89][90] Windows Vista Ultimate users wanting to upgrade from Windows Vista to Windows 7 must either pay $219.99[91] to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate or perform a clean install, which requires them to reinstall all of their programs.[92]

Editions

Main article: Windows 7 editions

Windows 7 is available in six different editions, but only the Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate editions are available for retail sale to consumers in most countries.[93] The other editions are aimed at other markets, such as the developing world or enterprise use.[93] Each edition of Windows 7 includes all of the capabilities and features of the edition below it.[93][94][95][96][97] All editions support the 32-bit (IA-32) processor architecture and all editions except Starter and Home Basic support the 64-bit (x86-64) processor architecture. The installation media is the same for all the consumer editions of Windows 7 that have the same processor architecture, with the license determining the features that are activated, and license upgrades permitting the subsequent unlocking of features without re-installation of the operating system.[98] This is the first time Microsoft has distributed 2 DVDs (1 DVD for IA-32 processor architecture, the other DVD for x86-64 processor architecture) for each edition of Windows 7 (Except for Starter and Home Basic). Users who wish to upgrade to an edition of Windows 7 with more features can then use Windows Anytime Upgrade to purchase the upgrade, and unlock the features of those editions.[94][98][99] Some copies of Windows 7 have restrictions, in which it must be distributed, sold, or bought and activated in the geographical region (One of the geographical regions can be either: Southeast Asia; India; or Latin America and the Caribbean) specified in its front cover box.

Microsoft is offering a family pack of Windows 7 Home Premium (in select markets) that allows installation on up to three PCs.[100] The "Family Pack" costs US$259.99 in the United States;[101] it was available at a cost of US$149.99 for some weeks when it was first introduced.[100]

On September 18, 2009, Microsoft said they were to offer temporary student discounts for Windows 7. The offer ran in the US and the United Kingdom, with similar schemes available in Canada, Australia, Korea, Mexico, France and Germany. Students with a valid .edu or .ac.uk email address could apply for either Windows 7 Home Premium or Professional, priced at $30 or £30.[102][103] This offer has ended as of January 5.

Windows 7 is also currently available as an embedded version to developers (previously Windows Embedded 2011).[104]

Marketing

Microsoft has marketed the whole of Windows 7 as "making your PC simpler." However, the different editions of Windows 7 have been designed and marketed toward different types of people. Out of all the different editions (Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate), the Starter edition has been designed for netbooks, Home Basic for the developing world, Home Premium designed and marketed for normal home users, Professional for businesses, Enterprise for larger businesses and corporations, and Ultimate for enthusiasts.

Hardware requirements

File:WINDOWS 7 PC STICKER.svg
The Windows 7 sticker is affixed to most PCs that meet the minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7 purchased on or after October 22, 2009

Microsoft has published the minimum specifications for a system to run Windows 7.[105] Requirements for the 32-bit version are similar to that of premium editions of Vista, but are higher for 64-bit versions. Microsoft has released an upgrade advisor that determines if a computer is compatible with Windows 7.

Minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7[105]
Architecture 32-bit 64-bit
Processor 1 GHz 32-bit processor 1 GHz 64-bit processor
Memory (RAM) 1 GB of RAM 2 GB of RAM
Graphics Card DirectX 9 graphics processor with WDDM driver model 1.0 (For Aero)
HDD free space 16 GB of available disk space 20 GB of available disk space
Optical drive DVD drive (only to install from DVD/CD Media)

Additional requirements to use certain features:[105]

  • Windows XP Mode (available on Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise), requires an additional 1 GB of RAM and an additional 15 GB of available hard disk space. The requirement for a processor capable of hardware virtualization has been lifted.[106]
  • Windows Media Center (included with Home Premium, Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise), requires a TV tuner to receive and record TV.

Service packs

Windows 7 Service Pack 1 (SP1) was announced on March 18, 2010 and is currently in development, planned for release in autumn 2010.[107][108] After months of speculation by analysts, Microsoft confirmed that the service pack is to be on a much smaller scale than those released for previous versions of Windows, particularly Windows Vista.[109] Service Pack 1 is expected to contain minor updates, including all patches and hotfixes already delivered through Windows Update, and add USB 3.0 support, improvements to Bluetooth performance, and an updated Remote Desktop client implementing upcoming RemoteFX technology.

On April 7, 2010, a build of Windows 7 Service Pack 1 dated from March 27, 2010 was leaked onto torrent sites.[110][111] The leaked service pack has a build number of 6.1.7601.16537.amd64fre.win7.100327-0053 and installation has been reported to be much quicker than service packs for previous versions of Windows.[112]

See also

References

  1. ^ Nash, Mike (October 14, 2008). "Why 7?". The Windows Blog. Retrieved December 3, 2009.
  2. ^ "Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Officially RTM At Build Version 6.1.7600.16385". Retrieved July 23, 2009.
  3. ^ http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/07/22/windows-7-has-been-released-to-manufacturing.aspx
  4. ^ Ricciuti, Mike (July 20, 2007). "Next version of Windows: Call it 7". CNET News.
  5. ^ a b Brandon LeBlanc. "Windows 7 Has Been Released to Manufacturing".
  6. ^ "Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Timelines Shared at Computex". Microsoft. June 3, 2009. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
  7. ^ Nash, Mike (October 28, 2008). "Windows 7 Unveiled Today at PDC 2008". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
  8. ^ LeBlanc, Brandon (October 28, 2008). "How Libraries & HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
  9. ^ "Windows 7 to Skip Photo, Mail, Calendar and Movie Editing tools".
  10. ^ "E-mail, photos, movie making will not be included in Windows 7".
  11. ^ LeBlance, Brandon (October 28, 2008). "The Complete Windows Experience – Windows 7 + Windows Live". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
  12. ^ Lettice, John (October 24, 2001). "Gates confirms Windows Longhorn for 2003". The Register. Retrieved March 5, 2008.
  13. ^ "Microsoft cuts key Longhorn feature". Todd Bishop. Hearst Seattle Media, LLC. August 28, 2004. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
  14. ^ Microsoft Windows System Overview
  15. ^ Thurrott, Paul (February 14, 2007). "Windows "7" FAQ". Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved January 5, 2008.
  16. ^ Foley, Mary J (July 20, 2007). "Windows Seven: Think 2010". ZDNet. Retrieved September 19, 2007.
  17. ^ Fried, Ina (October 13, 2008). "Microsoft makes Windows 7 name final". CNET. Retrieved October 13, 2008.
  18. ^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2008). "For Microsoft's Windows, 7th time's a charm". Retrieved October 27, 2008. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ Alex Castle (October 15, 2008). "Microsoft Justifies Its Windows 7 Naming Decision". Maximum PC. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
  20. ^ "Version numbers of Windows". technologizer.com.
  21. ^ Andrew. "Why Call it Windows 7?". www.worldstart.com. Retrieved November 20, 2009.
  22. ^ Ian Cunningham (December 3, 2008). "Windows 7 Build Numbers".
  23. ^ "OSNews.com". OSNews.com. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  24. ^ "Windows 7 beta 1 performance - How does the OS compare to Vista and XP? | Hardware 2.0 | ZDNet.com". Blogs.zdnet.com. January 1, 2009. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  25. ^ Graham-Smith, Darien (2009). "Follow-up: Benchmarking Windows 7". Retrieved January 29, 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. ^ "Leaked Windows 7 RC torrents infected with trojan". SlashGear
  27. ^ Pennington, Kenneth (2009). "Windows 7 64-Bit Beta Hits the Web". Retrieved January 7, 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (January 8, 2009). "CES: Steve Ballmer unveils Microsoft's Windows 7 | Technology | guardian.co.uk". London: Guardian. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  29. ^ "Microsoft delays first Windows 7 public beta". Gavin Clarke. The Register. January 10, 2009. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
  30. ^ Miller, Paul (April 24, 2009). "Windows 7 RC 7100 making its way to OEMs, a torrent tracker near you". Engadget.com. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  31. ^ "Windows 7 Release Candidate Customer Preview Program". Microsoft. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
  32. ^ "The Windows Blog".
  33. ^ Steven Levy (February 3, 2007). "Bill Gates on Vista and Apple's 'Lying' Ads".
  34. ^ Bill Gates (May 12, 2007). "Bill Gates: Japan—Windows Digital Lifestyle Consortium".
  35. ^ Sinofsky, Steven (December 15, 2008). "Continuing our discussion on performance". Engineering Windows 7. Microsoft. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
  36. ^ Oiaga, Marius (June 24, 2008). "Windows 7 Will Not Inherit the Incompatibility Issues of Vista".
  37. ^ Dignan, Larry (2008). "Ballmer: It's ok to wait until Windows 7; Yahoo still 'makes sense'; Google Apps 'primitive'". Retrieved October 17, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ "Windows 7 Takes More Advantage of Multi-Core CPUs - Windows 7". Windowsvienna.com. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  39. ^ "Windows 7 to get parallel-processing tweaks | All about Microsoft | ZDNet.com". Blogs.zdnet.com. September 30, 2008. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  40. ^ "Windows 7 to get parallel-processing tweaks | PC Tips". Pctipsbox.com. October 5, 2008. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  41. ^ "Windows 7 enters parallel universe". Vista.Blorge. September 30, 2008. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  42. ^ Gruener, Wolfgang (January 16, 2008). "TG Daily — Windows Vista successor scheduled for a H2 2009 release?". TG Daily. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  43. ^ "ThinkNext.net: Screenshots from a blogger with Windows 7 M1".
  44. ^ Zack Whittaker (June 12, 2009). "Windows 7 UAC flaw: "Pandora's box of all vulnerabilities"". Retrieved June 14, 2009.
  45. ^ Russinovich, Mark. "User Account Control Inside Windows 7 User Account Control". Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
  46. ^ "How to add Mac-like RAW image support to Windows 7, Vista, XP".
  47. ^ Softpedia (2008). "Windows 7 User Interface – The Superbar (Enhanced Taskbar)". Retrieved November 12, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  48. ^ "Windows 7: Some Minor Improvements, No Game Changer".
  49. ^ "Touching Windows 7 (Engineering Windows 7 Blog)".
  50. ^ "Engineering Windows 7 : Designing Aero Snap". Steven Sinofsky/Microsoft. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
  51. ^ "Windows 7: Web Services in Native Code". PDC 2008. Retrieved September 26, 2008.
  52. ^ "Windows 7: Deploying Your Application with Windows Installer (MSI) and ClickOnce". PDC 2008. Retrieved September 26, 2008.
  53. ^ "Windows 7: Writing World-Ready Applications". PDC 2008. Retrieved September 26, 2008.
  54. ^ "WinHEC 2008 GRA-583: Display Technologies". Microsoft. November 6, 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2008.
  55. ^ "Windows 7 High Color Support". Softpedia. November 26, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.
  56. ^ "Support and Q&A for Solid-State Drives". Engineering Windows 7. Microsoft. May 5, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
  57. ^ Crothers, Brooke (November 6, 2008). "Microsoft describes USB 3.0 delays". CNet. Retrieved November 13, 2008.
  58. ^ "Beta to RC Changes — Turning Windows Features On or Off".
  59. ^ Thurrott, Paul (March 8, 2009). "Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows: Windows 7 Build 7048 Notes". Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
  60. ^ "Windows Virtual PC". Microsoft. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
  61. ^ "Windows XP Mode for Windows 7 brochure" (PDF). Microsoft. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
  62. ^ "Demonstration: Windows 7 VHD Boot". Microsoft. Retrieved April 29, 2009.
  63. ^ "Windows 7 Presentation Virtualization: Graphics Remoting (RDP) Today and Tomorrow". Microsoft. Retrieved 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  64. ^ "Let's talk about Windows 7 Starter". Windows 7 Team. Retrieved May 29, 2009.
  65. ^ Windows Live team (October 22, 2009). "Finding your applications in Windows 7". Microsoft. Retrieved October 23, 2009.
  66. ^ Keizer, Gregg F. (2008). "Windows 7 eyed by antitrust regulators". Retrieved March 19, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  67. ^ "Microsoft proposes "Browser Ballot Screen" to the EU". Neowin. July 24, 2009. Retrieved August 1, 2009. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  68. ^ Warren, Tom (August 1, 2009). "Microsoft scraps Windows 7 'E' version for Europe". Neowin. Retrieved August 1, 2009.
  69. ^ "Microsoft online Windows 7 store page". Retrieved September 9, 2009.
  70. ^ "Windows 7 flies off virtual shelf". BBC News. July 15, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
  71. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (October 21, 2009). "Windows 7 set to break retail records". London: The Guardian. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
  72. ^ "64bit版Windows 7は人気でやや品薄、週明けには回復？". October 24, 2009.
  73. ^ "October 2009 OS stats: Windows 7 passes Snow Leopard, Linux". ars technica. November 6, 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  74. ^ "Windows 7 surpasses Snow Leopard in under two weeks". Neowin. November 7, 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  75. ^ Ina Fried (November 10, 2009). "Windows 7 use continues to climb". CNET. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  76. ^ http://digitaldaily.allthingsd.com/20100304/windows-7-90-million-licenses-sold-in-4-months/
  77. ^ "Microsoft Windows 7 (Home Premium) Review - CNet". CNet. July 31, 2009.
  78. ^ Michael Muchmore (October 22, 2009). "Microsoft Windows 7". PC Magazine. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  79. ^ Will Smith (October 19, 2009). "Windows 7 Review: XP vs Vista vs 7 in 80+ Benchmarks". Maximum PC. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  80. ^ Harry McCracken (October 19, 2009). "Windows 7 Review". PC World. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  81. ^ The PC World Editorial Team (October 19, 2009). "The PC World 100: Best Products of 2009". PC World. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  82. ^ Paul Miller (August 12, 2009). "Windows 7 review". Engadget. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  83. ^ Dana Wollman (August 21, 2009). "Windows 7". LAPTOP Magazine. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  84. ^ Mary Branscombe (August 7, 2009). "Windows 7 review". TechRadar. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  85. ^ David Pogue (October 21, 2009). "Windows 7 Keeps the Good, Tries to Fix Flaws". New York Times. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  86. ^ Edward C. Baig (October 21, 2009). "After Vista, Windows 7 is a giant leap for Microsoft". USA Today. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  87. ^ Walter S. Mossberg (October 8, 2009). "A Windows to Help You Forget". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  88. ^ Matt Warman (October 20, 2009). "Microsoft Windows 7 review". The Telegraph. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  89. ^ "Some Vista users say they're getting the Ultimate shaft". July 2, 2009.
  90. ^ "Vista Ultimate users fume, rant over Windows 7 deals". July 2, 2009.
  91. ^ "Shop: Windows 7". October 22, 2009.
  92. ^ "Windows 7 Upgrade Considerations". October 22, 2009.
  93. ^ a b c "All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know". ExtremeTech. February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
  94. ^ a b Thurrott, Paul (February 3, 2009). "Windows 7 Product Editions". Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  95. ^ "Windows 7 will come in many flavors". CNET News. February 3, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  96. ^ "Windows 7 Editions - Features on Parade". Softpedia. February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
  97. ^ "Windows 7: Which Edition is Right For You?". PCWorld. February 3, 2009. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
  98. ^ a b LeBlanc, Brandon (February 9, 2009). "A closer look at the Windows 7 SKUs". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved February 9, 2009.
  99. ^ "All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know - Release Date, Cost, and Upgrades". ExtremeTech. February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 16, 2009.
  100. ^ a b "Microsoft Announces "Family Pack" For Windows 7". Microsoft. July 21, 2009. Retrieved July 21, 2009. Cite error: The named reference "WindowsTeamBlogFamilyPack" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  101. ^ "Microsoft Windows 7 Home Premium Upgrade Family Pack (3-User)". Amazon. December 20, 2009. Retrieved December 20, 2009.
  102. ^ Microsoft. "Windows: Student Offer". Retrieved September 18, 2009.
  103. ^ Warren, Tom. "Microsoft: Students to get Windows 7 for £30/$30". Retrieved September 18, 2009.
  104. ^ http://www.microsoft.com/windowsembedded/en-us/products/westandard/futureversion.mspx?WT.mc_ID=FY10_Standard2011
  105. ^ a b c "Windows 7 system requirements". Microsoft.
  106. ^ "Windows Virtual PC – no hardware virtualization update now available for download".
  107. ^ "Microsoft: Few issues to address with Windows 7 Service Pack 1". TechRadar UK.
  108. ^ "Microsoft Announces Windows 7 Service Pack 1". Computer World.
  109. ^ "Microsoft: Few issues to address with Windows 7 Service Pack 1". TechRadar UK.
  110. ^ "Windows 7 SP1 Hits The Torrents". Lifehacker.
  111. ^ "Windows 7 Service Pack 1 Leaks Out". TechRadar UK.
  112. ^ "Windows 7 SP1 Beta Leaks". GeekSmack.
Wikinews has related news:
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Windows_7&oldid=364283149"