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thickened skin and subcutaneous tissues, particularly of the hands and feet, including [[plantar]] [[hyperplasia]], [[lipoma]]s, and other unspecified subcutaneous masses."<ref name=Tibbles />
thickened skin and subcutaneous tissues, particularly of the hands and feet, including [[plantar]] [[hyperplasia]], [[lipoma]]s, and other unspecified subcutaneous masses."<ref name=Tibbles />


In June 2001, British scientist [[Paul Spiring]] published an article in ''Biologist'', in which he proposed a new diagnosis.<ref name=Spiring /> He suggested that Merrick suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome. This hypothesis was endorsed by [[Robert Matthews (scientist)|Robert Matthews]], a correspondent for ''[[The Sunday Telegraph]]'' in an article entitled "Two wrongs don't make a right&nbsp;— until someone joins them up".<ref name=Matthews /> It also formed the basis for a 2003 documentary film entitled ''The Curse of The Elephant Man'', produced for the [[Discovery Health Channel]] by [[Natural History New Zealand]].<ref name=BBCunravelled /><ref name=telegraph /> During 2002, genealogical research for the film led to a [[BBC]] appeal to trace the Merrick's maternal family line. In response to the appeal, a Leicester resident named Pat Selby was discovered to be the granddaughter of Merrick's uncle George Potterton. A research team took her [[DNA]] samples in order to try to diagnose the condition that caused his deformities.<ref name=BBCSelby /> During 2003, [[DNA]] tests commissioned by the filmmakers, conducted on samples of Merrick's hair and bone, showed no conclusive evidence of either neurofibromatosis type I or Proteus syndrome.<ref name=BBCunravelled /><ref name=telegraph />
In June 2001, British scientist [[Paul Spiring]] published an article in ''Biologist'', in which he proposed a new diagnosis.<ref name=Spiring /> He suggested that Merrick suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome. This hypothesis was endorsed by [[Robert Matthews (scientist)|Robert Matthews]], a correspondent for ''[[The Sunday Telegraph]]'' in an article entitled "Two wrongs don't make a right&nbsp;— until someone joins them up".<ref name=Matthews /> It also formed the basis for a 2003 documentary film entitled ''The Curse of The Elephant Man'', produced for the [[Discovery Health Channel]] by [[Natural History New Zealand]].<ref name=BBCunravelled /><ref name=telegraph />
During 2002, genealogical research for the film led to a [[BBC]] appeal to trace the Merrick's maternal family line. In response to the appeal, a Leicester resident named Pat Selby was discovered to be the granddaughter of Merrick's uncle George Potterton. A research team took her [[DNA]] samples in order to try to diagnose the condition that caused his deformities.<ref name=BBCSelby /> During 2003, [[DNA]] tests commissioned by the filmmakers, conducted on samples of Merrick's hair and bone, showed no conclusive evidence of either neurofibromatosis type I or Proteus syndrome.<ref name=BBCunravelled /><ref name=telegraph />


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Revision as of 14:51, 20 June 2010

Joseph Merrick
File:Joseph Carey Merrick.png
Born
Joseph Carey Merrick

(1862-08-05)5 August 1862
Leicester, England
Died11 April 1890(1890-04-11) (aged 27)
London, England
NationalityEnglish
Occupation(s)Sideshow performer, Medical Research Subject
Parent(s)Mary Jane Potterton
Joseph Rockley Merrick

Joseph Carey Merrick (5 August 1862 – 11 April 1890) was an English freak show curiosity known as the Elephant Man due to his physical deformities resulting from a congenital disorder. A number of sources incorrectly refer to him as John Merrick. Merrick was born in Leicester and began to develop abnormally within the first few years of his life. His skin appeared thick and lumpy, he developed an enlargement of his lips, and a bony lump grew on his forehead. One of his arms and both feet became enlarged. At some point he fell and damaged his hip, resulting in permanent lameness. When he was 11, his mother died and his father quickly remarried. After leaving school at the age of 12, Merrick attempted to find employment but had limited success due to his appearance. He was rejected by his father and stepmother and left home. In late 1879, at 17 years of age, Merrick entered the Leicester Union workhouse.

In 1884, after four years in the workhouse, Merrick contacted a music hall comedian named Sam Torr and proposed that he should join his show as a freak exhibit. Torr agreed and arranged for a group of men to manage Merrick under the stage title, The Elephant Man. Later that year Merrick travelled to London for exhibition in a shop on Whitechapel Road managed by showman Tom Norman. Norman's shop was directly across the street from the London Hospital and was frequented by the hospital's medical students and doctors. One visitor, a surgeon named Frederick Treves, invited Merrick to the hospital to be examined and photographed. Soon afterwards, Tom Norman's shop was closed by the police and Merrick's managers decided to send him to tour in Europe.

In Belgium, Merrick was robbed by his road manager and abandoned in Brussels. He eventually made his way back to London where, unable to communicate effectively, he was found to have Frederick Treves' card on him. Treves was contacted and he came and took Merrick back to the London Hospital. It was decided that Merrick would be allowed to stay at the hospital for the remainder of his life. Rooms were adapted for him in the basement of the hospital and he lived there for the next four years. Treves visited him daily and they developed quite a close friendship. Merrick also received visits from the wealthy ladies and gentlemen of London society.

Merrick died on 11 April 1890, age 27. The official cause of death was asphyxia, although Treves, who dissected the body, said that it was a dislocated neck. He believed that Merick—who had to sleep sitting up, due to the weight of his head—had been attempting to sleep lying down, to "be like other people". Merrick's skeleton was preserved and remains in the London Hospital. The exact cause of Merrick's deformities remains a mystery. The dominant theory through much of the 20th century was that Merrick suffered from neurofibromatosis type I. In 1986, a new theory emerged that he had Proteus syndrome. In 2001 it was proposed that Merrick had suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome. DNA tests conducted on his hair and bones have proven inconclusive. Bernard Pomerance's play called The Elephant Man débuted in 1979 and David Lynch's film, also called The Elephant Man, was released the following year. The Elephant Man made headlines in 1987 when newspaper reports said that singer Michael Jackson had tried to buy Merrick's skeleton—this story was later denied by Jackson.

Biography

Early life and family

Merrick photographed in 1889

Joseph Carey Merrick was born 5 August 1862 at 50 Lee Street in Leicester to Joseph Rockley Merrick and his wife Mary Jane (née Potterton).[1] Joseph Rockley Merrick (c. 1835 – 1897) was the son of London-born weaver Barnabas Merrick who moved to Leicester during the 1820s or 1830s, and his third wife Sarah Rockley.[2] Mary Jane Potterton (c. 1834 – 1873) was the daughter of a Yorkshire agricultural labourer and had some form of physical disability. As a young woman she worked as a domestic servant in Leicester before marrying Joseph Rockley Merrick, then a brougham driver, in 1861. The following year, Joseph Carey Merrick was born, apparently healthy without any outward symptoms of any disorder for the first few years of his life. Named after his father, he was given the middle name Carey by his mother, a Baptist, after the preacher William Carey.[3] The Merricks had two more children, William Arthur (born 1866) who died of scarlet fever aged four and Marian Eliza (born 1867), who was born with physical disabilities.[4]

A freak show pamphlet entitled "The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick", produced c. 1884 to accompany his exhibition, states that he started to display symptoms at the approximately five years of age, with "thick lumpy skin [...] like that of an elephant, and almost the same colour".[5] An anonymous 1930 article in the Illustrated Leicester Chronicle that appears to have been written by someone close to the Merrick family, said that he began to develop swellings on his lips at the age of 21 months, followed by a bony lump on his forehead and a loosening and roughening of the skin.[6] As he grew, a noticeable difference between the size of his left and right arms appeared and both his feet became significantly enlarged.[6] Merrick's symptoms were explained by the family as having resulted from Mary's being knocked over and frightened by a fairground elephant while she was pregnant with her eldest son.[6] The concept of maternal impression—that the emotional experiences of pregnant women could have lasting physical effect on their unborn children—was still common in 19th century England.[7] Merrick held this belief as the cause of his affliction, for his entire life.[8]

In addition to his deformities, at some point during his childhood, Merrick suffered a fall and damaged his left hip. This injury became infected and as a result he was permanently lame.[4] Although affected by his physical deformities, Merrick attended school and enjoyed a close relationship with his mother.[4] She was a Sunday School teacher, and his father worked as an engine driver at a cotton factory, as well as running a haberdashery business.[4] On 19 May 1873, less than three years after the death of her younger son, Mary Jane Merrick died from bronchopneumonia.[9] Joseph Rockley Merrick moved with his two children to live with Mrs. Emma Wood Antill, a widow with children of her own. They married on 3 December 1874.[10]

Employment and the workhouse

I was taunted and sneered at so that I would not go home to my meals, and used to stay in the streets with an hungry belly rather than return for anything to eat, what few half-meals I did have, I was taunted with the remark — 'That's more than you have earned.'

—"The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick"[5]

Merrick left school at age 12.[11] His home-life was now "a perfect misery",[5] and neither his father nor his stepmother demonstrated affection towards him.[11] He ran away "two or three" times, but was brought back by his father.[5] At 13, he found work rolling cigars in a cigar factory,but three years later, his right hand deformity worsened and he no longer had the dexterity required for the job.[11] Now unemployed, he spent his days wandering the streets, looking for work and avoiding his stepmother's taunts.[1] Merrick was becoming a greater financial burden on his family and eventually, his father secured him a hawker's license which enabled him to earn money selling items from the haberdashery shop, door to door.[12] This endeavour was unsuccessful, since Merrick's facial deformities rendered his speech increasingly unintelligible and prospective customers reacted with horror to his physical appearance. Housewives refused to open doors for him and now people not only stared at him but began to follow him out of curiosity.[12] For these reasons, Merrick failed to make very much money as a hawker. On returning home one day in 1877, he was severely beaten by his father and he left home for good.[13]

Merrick photographed in 1889

Merrick was now homeless on the streets of Leicester. A barber Charles Merrick, his uncle, on hearing of his nephew's situation, sought him out and offered him accommodations in his home.[14] Merrick still had some of the haberdashery wares in his possession and continued to hawk around Leicester for the next two years. These efforts met with no more success than before. Eventually, he became so disfigured that the Commissioners for Hackney Carriages revoked his license.[14] Trying to provide for his young children, Charles could no longer afford to support Merrick. In late December 1879, now 17 years old, he entered the Leicester Union Workhouse.[15]

Merrick became one of 928 residents in the workhouse, on his admission.[16] The group was segregated by age and sex, and therefore Merrick was housed with the other men between 16 and 60.[17] On 22 March 1880, only 12 weeks after entering, Merrick signed himself out of the workhouse and spent two days looking for work. With no more success than before, he found himself without any option but to return to the workhouse. He would stay for four years.[18] Around 1882, Merrick underwent surgery on his face. The protrusion from his mouth had grown to 8–9 inches and severely inhibited his speech and made it difficult to eat.[19] He was operated on at the Leicester Infirmary and had a large part of the mass removed.[5]

Freak show life

Merrick concluded that his only escape from the workhouse might be through the world of freak show exhibitions.[20] He was aware of a Leicester music hall comedian and proprietor named Sam Torr. Merrick wrote to Torr, who came and visited him at the workhouse. Torr decided that he could make money exhibiting Merrick, although to retain Merrick's novelty, he would have to be a travelling exhibit.[20] To this end, Torr organised a group of managers for Merrick: music hall proprietor J. Ellis, travelling showman George Hitchcock, and fair owner Sam Roper. On 3 August 1884 Merrick departed the workhouse to start his new career.[21]

The showmen immediately gave Merrick the sobriquet Elephant Man, further describing him as 'Half-a-Man and Half-an-Elephant'.[21] They exhibited him around the East Midlands, including in Leicester and Nottingham, before moving on to London for the winter season. George Hitchcock contacted an acquaintance, showman Tom Norman, who ran novelty freak shops in London's East End. Without a meeting, Norman agreed to take over Merrick's management. In November, Hitchcock travelled with Merrick to London.[22]

When Tom Norman first saw Merrick, he was dismayed by the extent of his deformities. He feared that Merrick's appearance might be too horrific to be a successful novelty.[23] Nevertheless, he exhibited Merrick in the back of an empty shop on Whitechapel Road. Merrick had an iron bed and a curtain drawn around to afford him some privacy. Norman observed Merrick asleep one morning and learned that he always slept sitting up, with his legs drawn up and his head resting on his knees. His enlarged head was too heavy to allow him to sleep lying down and, as Merrick put it, he would risk "waking with a broken neck".[24] Norman decorated the shop with posters that had been created by Hitchcock, depicting a monstrous half-man—half-elephant.[25] A pamphlet titled "The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick" was created, outlining Merrick's life to date. This biography, whether written by Merrick or not, provided a generally accurate account of his life. It contained an incorrect date of birth but, throughout his life, Merrick was vague about this date.[26]

Ladies and gentlemen [...] I would like to introduce Mr Joseph Merrick, the Elephant Man. Before doing so I ask you please to prepare yourselves — Brace yourselves up to witness one who is probably the most remarkable human being ever to draw the breath of life.

Norman gathered an audience by standing outside the shop and drawing a crowd through his showman patter. He would then lead his onlookers into the shop, explaining that the Elephant Man was "not here to frighten you but to enlighten you."[25] Drawing aside the curtain, he allowed the onlookers—often visibly horrified—to observe Merrick up close, while describing the circumstances leading to his present condition, including his mother's accident with an elephant.

The Elephant Man exhibit was moderately successful and made money primarily from the sales of the autobiographical pamphlet.[24] Merrick was able to put his share of the profits aside, hoping to earn enough to one day buy a home of his own.[28] The shop on Whitechapel Road was directly across the road from the London Hospital. This proved an excellent location as medical students and doctors visited the shop, curious to view Merrick.[24] One of these visitors was a young house surgeon named Reginald Tuckett. Like his colleagues, Tuckett was intrigued by the Elephant Man's deformities and told his senior colleague Frederick Treves.[29]

Merrick's cap and hood

Frederick Treves first met Merrick that November at a private viewing, before Norman opened the shop for the day.[24] Treves later recalled in his 1923 Reminiscences that Merrick was "the most disgusting specimen of humanity that I had ever seen."[30] The viewing lasted no more than 15 minutes after which Treves returned to work. Later that day, he sent Tuckett back to the shop to ask if Merrick might be willing to come to the hospital for an examination. Norman and Merrick agreed.[31] To enable him to travel the short distance without drawing undue attention, Merrick donned a costume consisting of a huge black cloak, a brown cap with a hood that covered his face, and rode in a cab hired by Treves.[32][nb 1]

At the hospital, Treves examined Merrick, observing that the he was "shy, confused, not a little frightened, and evidently much cowed."[30] At this point, Treves assumed that the Elephant Man was an "imbecile".[30] He measured Merrick's head at 36 inches (91 cm), his right wrist at 12 inches (30 cm) and one of his fingers at 5 inches (13 cm). He noted that his skin was covered in papillomata (warty growths), the largest of which exuded an unpleasant smell.[34] The subcutaneous tissue appeared to be weakened and caused a loosening of the skin, which in some areas hung away from the body. There were bone deformities in the right arm, both legs, and, most conspicuously, in the skull.[35] Despite the corrective surgery in 1882, Merrick's speech remained barely intelligible. His left arm and hand, although small, were not deformed. His penis and scrotum were normal. Apart from his deformities and the lameness in his hip, Treves concluded that Merrick appeared to be in good general health.[36] Norman later recalled that Merrick went to the hospital for examination "two or three"[31] times and on one of the visits, Treves had photographs taken and he provided Merrick with a set of copies.[37] On 2 December, Treves presented Merrick at a meeting of the Pathological Society of London in Bloomsbury.[38] During one of their meetings, Treves gave Merrick with his calling card.[1] Eventually, Merrick told Norman that he no longer wanted to be examined at the hospital. According to Norman, he said he was "stripped naked, and felt like an animal in a cattle market."[39]

During this time in Victorian England, tastes were changing in regard to freak show acts like the Elephant Man. Penny gaff shops like Norman's were a cause for public concern, both on the grounds of decency and due to the disruption caused by crowds gathering outside them.[40] Not long after Merrick's last examination with Frederick Treves, the police closed down Norman's shop on Whitechapel Road, and Merrick's Leicester managers withdrew him from Norman's care.[39] In 1885, Merrick went on the road with Sam Roper's travelling fair.[41] He befriended two other performers, "Roper's Midgets"—Bertram Dooley and Harry Bramley—who on occasion defended Merrick from public harassment.[33]

Europe

The dampening of public enthusiasm for freak shows continued and the police and magistrates became increasingly vigilant in closing shows down. Merrick remained a horrifying spectacle for his viewers and Roper began to grow nervous about the negative attention the Elephant Man drew from local authorities.[33] It was decided by Merrick's group of managers that he should go on tour in Continental Europe, with the hope that authorities there would be more lenient. Merrick's management was assumed by an unknown man (possibly named Ferrari) and they left for the Continent.[42] The Elephant Man was no more successful here than in England and similar action was taken by authorities to move him out of their jurisdictions. In Brussels, Merrick was deserted by this new manager, who stole Merrick's £50 (2025 equivalent £Error when using {{Inflation}}: |end_year=2,025 (parameter 4) is greater than the latest available year (2,023) in index "UK".) savings.[43] Abandoned, Merrick made his way by train to Ostend, where he attempted to board a ferry for Dover but was refused passage.[44] He then travelled to Antwerp and was able to board a ship bound for Harwich. From there, he caught a train to London and arrived at Liverpool Street station.[45]

Merrick arrived at Liverpool Street Station on 24 June 1886, safely back in his own country, but with nowhere to go. He was not eligible to join a workhouse in London. He could only be accepted by Leicester Union, where he was a permanent resident. Leicester was still 98 miles (158 km) away.[46] He approached strangers for help but his speech was unintelligible and appearance repugnant. Merrick quickly drew a crowd of curious onlookers. A policeman helped him into an empty waiting room, where he huddled in a corner, exhausted. Unable to understand Merrick's speech, his only identifying possession was Frederick Treves' card.[47] The police contacted Treves who quickly went to the station. Recognizing Merrick, Treves took him in a hansom cab to the London Hospital. Merrick, was admitted for bronchitis; he was washed, fed, and put to bed in a small private room in the hospital's attic.[48]

London Hospital

With Merrick admitted into the hospital, Treves now had time to conduct a thorough examination. He discovered that Merrick's physical condition had deteriorated over the previous two years. Merrick had become quite crippled by his deformities. Treves also suspected that Merrick now suffered from the effects of a heart condition and that he only had a few years left to live.[49] Merrick's general health improved over the next five months under the care of the hospital staff. Although some nurses were initially upset by his appearance, they overcame this and cared for him.[50] The problem of his unpleasant odour was mediated through frequent bathing and Treves gradually developed an understanding of Merrick's speech. A new set of photographs was taken. The question of Merrick's long-term care needs had to be addressed. Carr Gomm, the chairman of the hospital committee, had been supported Treves in his decision to admit Merrick, but by November, long-term plans needed to be made. The London Hospital was not equipped or staffed to provide care for the incurable, which Merrick clearly was.[50]

Carr Gomm contacted other institutions and hospitals more suited to caring for chronic cases, but none would accept Merrick. Carr Gomm wrote a letter to The Times, printed on 4 December, outlining Merrick's case and asking readers for suggestions.[51] The public response—in letters and donations—was significant, and the situation was even covered by the British Medical Journal. With the financial backing of the many donors, Carr Gomm was able to make a convincing case to the committee for keeping Merrick in the hospital. It was decided that he would be allowed to stay there for the remainder of his life.[52] He was moved from the attic to two rooms in the basement adjacent to a small courtyard. The rooms were adapted and furnished to suit Merrick, with a specially constructed bed and at Treves' instruction, no mirrors.[53]

Merrick settled into his new life at the London Hospital. Treves visited him daily and spent a couple of hours with him every Sunday.[54] Now that Merrick had found someone who understood his speech, he was delighted to carry on long conversations with the doctor.[54] Treves and Merrick built a friendly relationship, although Merrick never completely confided in him. He told Treves that he was an only child, and Treves had the impression that Merrick's mother—whose picture Merrick always carried with him—had abandoned him as a baby.[54] Merrick was also reluctant to talk about his freak show days, although he expressed gratitude towards his former managers.[55] It did not take Treves long to realise that, contrary to his initial impressions, Merrick was not intellectually impaired.[54]

Merrick desired to understand the "real world", and questioned Treves on a number of topics. One day he expressed a desire to see inside what he considered a "real" house and Treves obliged, taking him to visit his Wimpole Street townhouse.[56] He filled his days with reading and constructing models of buildings out of card. He entertained visits from Treves and his house surgeons. He rose each day in the afternoon and would leave his rooms to walk in the small adjacent courtyard, after dark.

The only surviving letter written by Merrick

Treves observed that Merrick was very sensitive and showed his emotions easily.[57] At times Merrick was bored and lonely, and demonstrated signs of depression.[58] He had spent his entire adult life segregated from women, first in the workhouse and then as a freak show exhibit. The women he met were either disgusted or frightened by his appearance.[59] His opinions about women were derived from his memories of his mother and what he read in books. Treves decided that Merrick would like to be introduced to a woman and it would help him feel "normal".[60] The doctor arranged for a friend of his named Mrs. Leila Maturin, "a young and pretty widow", to visit Merrick.[30] She agreed and with fair warning about his appearance, she went to his rooms for an introduction. The meeting was short, as Merrick quickly became overcome with emotion.[60] He later told Merrick that Maturin had been the first woman ever to smile at him, the first to shake his hand.[30] She kept in contact with him and a letter written by Merrick to her—thanking her for the gift of a book and a brace of grouse—is the only surviving example of Merrick's handwriting.[61] This first experience of meeting a lady, though brief, instilled in Merrick a new sense of self-confidence.[62] Merrick met other women during his life at the hospital, and appeared enamoured with them all. Treves believed that Merrick's hope was to go to an institution for the blind, where he might meet a woman who could not see his deformities.[62]

Card church built by Merrick

As a result of Carr Gomm's letters to The Times, Merrick's case attracted the notice of London's high society. One person who took a keen interest was actress Madge Kendal.[63] Although she probably never met him in person, she was responsible for raising funds and public sympathy for Merrick, and sent him gifts.[64] She sent him photographs of herself and employed a basket weaver to go to his rooms and teach him the craft.[65] Although Kendal never visited Merrick, other ladies and gentlemen of high society did, bringing him gifts of photographs and books. He reciprocated with letters and hand made gifts of card models and baskets. Merrick enjoyed these visits and became confident enough to converse with people who passed his windows.[66] A young man, Charles Taylor, the son of the engineer responsible for modifying Merrick's rooms, spent time with him and played the violin.[64] Occasionally, he grew bold enough to leave his small living quarters and would explore the hospital. When he was discovered, he was always hurried back to his quarters by the nurses, who feared that he might frighten the patients.[66]

On 21 May 1887, two new buildings were completed at the hospital and the Prince and Princess of Wales came to officially open them.[67] Princess Alexandra wished to meet the Elephant Man, so after a tour of the hospital, the royal party went to his billets for an introduction. The princess shook Merrick's hand and sat with him, an experience that left him overjoyed.[68] She later sent him a signed photograph of herself, which became a prized possession, and she sent him a Christmas card each year.[30]

On at least one occasion, Merrick was able to fulfil his long held desire to visit the theatre.[69] Treves—with the help of Madge Kendal—arranged for him to attend the Christmas pantomime at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Treves sat with some nurses, concealed in Baroness Burdett-Coutts's private box.[70] According to Treves, Merrick was "awed" and "enthralled". "The spectacle left him speechless, so that if he were spoken to he took no heed."[30] For weeks following the show Merrick talked about the pantomime, reliving the story as if it had been real.[71]

Last years

Fawsley Hall estate in Northamptonshire, now a hotel

On three occasions Merrick had the opportunity to leave the hospital and London on vacations, spending a few weeks at a time in the countryside.[72] Through elaborate arrangements that allowed Merrick to board a train unseen and have an entire carriage to himself, he travelled to Northamptonshire to stay at Fawsley Hall, the estate of Lady Louisa Knightley[72] He stayed at the gamekeeper's cottage and spent the days walking in the estate's woods, collecting wild flowers.[73] He befriended a young farm labourer who later recalled Merrick as an interesting and well-educated man.[61] Treves called this "the one supreme holiday of [Merrick's] life", although in fact there were three such trips.[30][74]

Merrick's condition gradually deteriorated during his four years at the London hospital. He required a great deal of care from the nursing staff and spent much of his time in bed, or sitting in his quarters, with diminishing physical energy.[61] His facial deformities continued to grow and his head became even more enlarged. He died on 11 April 1890, at the age of 27.[75] At around three o'clock in the afternoon, Treves' house surgeon visited Merrick and found him lying dead across his bed. His body was formally identified by his uncle, Charles Merrick.[76] An inquest was held on 15 April by Wynne Edwin Baxter, who had come to notoriety conducting the inquests for the Whitechapel murders of 1888.[75]

He often said to me that he wished he could lie down to sleep 'like other people' [...] he must, with some determination, have made the experiment [...] Thus it came about that his death was due to the desire that had dominated his life — the pathetic but hopeless desire to be 'like other people'.

His death was ruled accidental and the cause of death entered on his death certificate was asphyxia, caused by the weight of his head as he lay down.[77][78] Treves, who dissected Merrick's body, said that the cause of death was a dislocated neck.[78] Knowing that Merrick had always slept sitting upright, out of necessity, Treves came to the conclusion that Merrick must have "made [an] experiment", attempting to sleep lying down, trying to sleep like other people.[78]

Treves dissected Merrick's body and took plaster casts of his head and limbs. He took skin samples, which were later lost during the Second World War, and mounted his skeleton, which remains in the pathology collection at the Royal London Hospital. While the skeleton has never been on public display, there is a small museum focused on his life, which houses some of his personal effects.

Medical condition

The skeleton of Joseph Merrick

Ever since Joseph Merrick's days as a novelty exhibit on Whitechapel Road, his condition has been a source of curiosity for medical professionals. His appearance at the meeting of the Pathological Society of London in 1884 drew a certain amount of interest from the doctors present, but none of the answers nor the attention that Treves had hoped for. The case received only a brief mention in the British Medical Journal and the Lancet declined to mention it at all.[79] Four months later, in 1885, Treves brought the case before the meeting for a second time. By then, Tom Norman's shop on Whitechapel Road had been closed, and the Elephant Man had moved on. With no knowledge of his whereabouts, Treves had to make do with the photographs he had taken of Merrick previously. One of the doctors present at the meeting was Henry Radcliffe Crocker, a dermatologist who was known as an authority on skin diseases.[80] After hearing Treves' description of Merrick, and viewing the photographs, Crocker proposed that the cause of Merrick's condition might be ascribed to a combination of dermatolysis, pachydermatocele and an unnamed bone deformity, all caused by changes in the nervous system.[40] Crocker wrote about Merrick in 1888 in his book Diseases of the Skin: their Description, Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment.[81]

In 1909, dermatologist Frederick Parkes Weber wrote an article about von Recklinghausen disease (now known as neurofibromatosis type I) in the British Journal of Dermatology.[82] He described Merrick as an example of the disease, which had been described by Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen in 1882.[83] Symptoms of this genetic disorder include tumours of the nervous tissue and bones, and small warty growths on the skin.[83][84] One characteristic of neurofibromatosis is the presence of light brown pigmentation on the skin called café au lait spots.[85] These were never observed on Merrick's body.[86] This was the accepted diagnosis through most of the 20th century, although other suggestions have included Maffucci syndrome and polyostotic fibrous dysplasia (Albright's disease).[86]

In a 1986 article in the British Medical Journal, Michael Cohen and J. A. R. Tibbles put forward the theory that Merrick had suffered from Proteus syndrome, a congenital disorder identified by Cohen in 1979.[87] They cited Merrick's lack of reported café au lait spots and the absence of any histological proof that he had suffered from neurofibromatosis type I.[87] Unlike neurofibromatosis, Proteus syndrome affects tissue other than nerves, and it is a sporadic disorder rather than a genetically transmitted disease.[88] Cohen and Tibbles said that Merrick showed the following signs of Proteus syndrome: "macrocephaly; hyperostosis of the skull; hypertrophy of long bones; and thickened skin and subcutaneous tissues, particularly of the hands and feet, including plantar hyperplasia, lipomas, and other unspecified subcutaneous masses."[87]

In June 2001, British scientist Paul Spiring published an article in Biologist, in which he proposed a new diagnosis.[89] He suggested that Merrick suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome. This hypothesis was endorsed by Robert Matthews, a correspondent for The Sunday Telegraph in an article entitled "Two wrongs don't make a right — until someone joins them up".[90] It also formed the basis for a 2003 documentary film entitled The Curse of The Elephant Man, produced for the Discovery Health Channel by Natural History New Zealand.[91][92]

During 2002, genealogical research for the film led to a BBC appeal to trace the Merrick's maternal family line. In response to the appeal, a Leicester resident named Pat Selby was discovered to be the granddaughter of Merrick's uncle George Potterton. A research team took her DNA samples in order to try to diagnose the condition that caused his deformities.[93] During 2003, DNA tests commissioned by the filmmakers, conducted on samples of Merrick's hair and bone, showed no conclusive evidence of either neurofibromatosis type I or Proteus syndrome.[91][92]

Tis true my form is something odd,
But blaming me is blaming God.
Could I create myself anew,
I would not fail in pleasing you.
If I could reach from pole to pole,
Or grasp the ocean with a span,
I would be measured by the soul,

The mind's the standard of the man.

— Isaac Watts—adopted by Joseph Merrick to end his letters

Legacy

In addition to his medical writing, Frederick Treves became a mainstream author in later life. In 1923, the year of his death, he published a volume entitled The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences, in which he detailed what he knew of Merrick's life and their personal interactions. This account is the source of much of what is known about Merrick, but there were several inaccuracies in the book. Merrick never completely confided in Treves about his early life, so these details were consequently sketchy in Treves' Reminiscneces. A more mysterious error is that of Merrick's first name. Treves, in his earlier journal articles as well as his book, insisted on calling him John Merrick. The reason for this is unclear; Merrick clearly signed his name as "Joseph" in the examples of his handwriting that remain.[94] In the handwritten manuscript for The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences, Treves began his account by writing "Joseph" and then crossed it out and replaced it with "John".[95] Whatever the reason for the error, it is one that persisted throughout much of the 20th century; later biographers who based their work on Treves' book have continued the error.

Treves' portrayal of Tom Norman, the showman who exhibited Merrick, was as a cruel drunk who ruthlessly exploited his charge.[96][97] In a letter to the World's Fair newspaper, and later in his own memoirs, Norman refuted this version of events and said that he provided his "freaks" with a way of earning a living, and that at the London Hospital, Merrick was still on display, but with no control over how or when he was viewed. According to Nadja Durbach, author of The Spectacle of Deformity: Freak Shows and Modern British Culture, Norman's view provides an insight into the Victorian freak show's function as a means of survival for poor people with deformities, as well as the attitude of medical professionals of the time.[98] Durbach cautions that both Treves' and Norman's memoirs must be understood as "narrative reconstructions [...] that reflect personal and professional prejudices and cater to the demands and expectations of their very different audiences".[99]

In 1971, anthropologist Ashley Montagu published The Elephant Man: A Study in Human Dignity which drew on Treves' book and explored Merrick's character.[100] Montagu attempted to create a more accurate version of Merrick's life story by noting some inconsistencies between Treves's memoir and other contemporary documents, such as Carr Gomm's letter to the Times and the report on Merrick's inquest. However, Montagu also perpetuated some of the errors in Treves' work, including the use of the name "John".[101]

Between 1979 and 1982, Merrick's life story became the basis of several works of dramatic art; these were based on the accounts of Treves and Montagu, since Howell and Ford's biography was not yet available. In 1979, a Tony Award-winning play, The Elephant Man, by American playwright Bernard Pomerance was staged.[102] The character based on Merrick was played by Philip Anglim, and later by David Bowie.[103] In 1980 David Lynch released The Elephant Man film, which received eight academy award nominations. Merrick was played by John Hurt and Frederick Treves by Anthony Hopkins. In 1982, US television network ABC broadcast an adaptation of Pomerance's play, starring Anglim.[104]

In 1980, Michael Howell and Peter Ford published The True History of the Elephant Man, presenting the fruits of their detailed archival research. Howell and Ford brought to light a large amount of new information about Merrick. In addition to proving that his name was Joseph, not John, they were able to describe in more detail his life story. They refuted some of the inaccuracies in Treves's account, showing that Merrick's mother did not abandon him, and that Merrick deliberately chose to exhibit himself as a freak.

In May 1987 press reports circulated that pop star Michael Jackson had offered the Royal London Hospital up to $1 million for Merrick's remains. The reports included quoted statements from the Hospital and from Jackson's publicists.[105][106] Jackson responded by including a dance sequence with an animated elephant man skeleton in the 1989 video for "Leave Me Alone", which also parodied other press stories about him. He directly denied the reports in a 1993 interview with television host Oprah Winfrey, saying

"That's another stupid story. I love the story of the Elephant man, he reminds me of me a lot, and I could relate to it, it made me cry because I saw myself in the story, but no I never asked for the...where am I going to put some bones?".[107]

But in a conversation with CBC Radio, David Edwards, the chief administrator of the London Hospital at the time, said Jackson had visited the facility and was shown Merrick's bones.[108] The claim was repeated in press reports following Jackson's death.[109]

References

Notes
  1. ^ Although Treves states that Merrick's outfit on this occasion included the black cloak and brown cap, there is evidence to suggest that Merrick acquired this particular costume a year later, while travelling with Sam Roper's Fair. If that was the case, Treves was remembering the clothing from a later meeting with Merrick.[33]
Footnotes
  1. ^ a b c Osborne, Peter; Harrison, B. (September 2004), "Merrick, Joseph Carey [Elephant Man] (1862–1890)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/37759, retrieved 24 May 2010
  2. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 33
  3. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 42
  4. ^ a b c d Howell & Ford (1992), p. 44
  5. ^ a b c d e "The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick"
  6. ^ a b c Howell & Ford (1992), p. 43
  7. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 129
  8. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 128
  9. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 45
  10. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 47
  11. ^ a b c Howell & Ford (1992), p. 48
  12. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 49
  13. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 50
  14. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 51
  15. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 52
  16. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 54
  17. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 55
  18. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 57
  19. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 58
  20. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 62
  21. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 63
  22. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 64
  23. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 72
  24. ^ a b c d Howell & Ford (1992), p. 75
  25. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 73
  26. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 53
  27. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 74
  28. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 78
  29. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 5
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i Treves (1923)
  31. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 76
  32. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 13
  33. ^ a b c Howell & Ford (1992), p. 81
  34. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 23
  35. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 24
  36. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 25
  37. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 79
  38. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 26
  39. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 77
  40. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 29
  41. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 80
  42. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 84
  43. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 85
  44. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 86
  45. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 87
  46. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 88
  47. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 89
  48. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 90
  49. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 94
  50. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 95
  51. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 93
  52. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 99
  53. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 100
  54. ^ a b c d Howell & Ford (1992), p. 102
  55. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 103
  56. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 114
  57. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 104
  58. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 106
  59. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 105
  60. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 107
  61. ^ a b c Howell & Ford (1992), p. 145
  62. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 108
  63. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 109
  64. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 111
  65. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 112
  66. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 113
  67. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 115
  68. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 116
  69. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 119
  70. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 120
  71. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 126
  72. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 142
  73. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 143
  74. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 144
  75. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 146
  76. ^ "Death of the Elephant Man", The Times, 16 April 1890 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  77. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 147
  78. ^ a b c Howell & Ford (1992), p. 151
  79. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 27
  80. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 28
  81. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 127
  82. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 133
  83. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 132
  84. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 134
  85. ^ Korf & Rubenstein (2005), p. 61
  86. ^ a b Howell & Ford (1992), p. 137
  87. ^ a b c Tibbles, J. A. R.; Cohen, M. M. (1986), "The Proteus syndrome: the Elephant Man diagnosed.", British Medical Journal, 293 (6548): 683–685, doi:10.1136/bmj.293.6548.683, PMC 1341524, PMID 3092979.
  88. ^ Pletcher, Beth A. (18 March 2010), "Proteus Syndrome", eMedicine, Medscape, retrieved 2 June 2010 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
  89. ^ Spiring, P. (June 2001), "The improbable "Elephant Man"", Biologist, 48 (3), Society of Biology: 104, PMID 11399837
  90. ^ Matthews, Robert (14 June 2001), "Two wrongs don't make a right — until someone joins them up", The Sunday Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, retrieved 23 May 2010
  91. ^ a b "Elephant man mystery unravelled", BBC News, BBC, 21 July 2003, retrieved 23 May 2010 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  92. ^ a b Highfield, Roger (22 July 2003), "Science uncovers handsome side of the Elephant Man", The Daily Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, retrieved 23 May 2010
  93. ^ "Elephant man's descendant found", BBC News, BBC, 20 November 2002, retrieved 2 June 2010 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  94. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 7
  95. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 164
  96. ^ Toulmin, Vanessa (January 2008), "Norman, Tom (1860–1930)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/73081, retrieved 19 June 2010
  97. ^ "'It was not the show it was the tale that you told' : The Life and Legend of Tom Norman, the Silver King", National Fairground Archive, University of Sheffield, 2007, retrieved 19 May 2010 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  98. ^ Durbach (2009), p. 34
  99. ^ Durbach (2009), pp. 37–38
  100. ^ Howell & Ford (1992), p. 171
  101. ^ Howell and Ford, 178.
  102. ^ Associated Press (1 June 1979), "'Sweeney Todd' is named best", Daily News, Mortimer Zuckerman, retrieved 2 June 2010
  103. ^ "Bowie in 'Elephant Man' role", The Gazette, Canwest, 11 June 1980, retrieved 2 June 2010
  104. ^ "'Elephant Man' on ABC Theater", The Telegraph, Telegraph Publishing Company, 28 March 1981, retrieved 2 June 2010
  105. ^ Staff writer (30 May 1987), "Jackson bids for Elephant Man Remains", Los Angeles Times, Tribune Company
  106. ^ Staff writer (17 June 1987), "Jackson Loses New Bid for Elephant Man Bones", Los Angeles Times, Tribune Company
  107. ^ Tickle, Cindy (27 June 2009), "A look back at Michael Jackson's 1993 interview with Oprah Winfrey", Examiner.com, Clarity Digital Group {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  108. ^ Trudeau, Dennis (17 June 1987), "Michael Jackson bids for the elephant man" (audio), CBC Digital Archives, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, retrieved 23 May 2010 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  109. ^ Vaziri, Aidin (25 June 2009), "Michael Jackson: talented, troubled voice of pop", San Francisco Chronicle, Hearst Corporation, retrieved 23 May 2010
Bibliography
  • Durbach, Nadja (2009). "Monstrosity, Masculinity, and Medicine: Reexamining 'the Elephant Man'". The Spectacle of Deformity: Freak Shows and Modern British Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520257685. OCLC 314839375.
  • Howell, Michael; Ford, Peter (1992), The True History of the Elephant Man (3rd ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0140165150, OCLC 29668435
  • Korf, Bruce R.; Rubenstein, Allan E. (2005), Neurofibromatosis: A Handbook for Patients, Families, and Health Care Professionals, New York: Thieme, ISBN 158890301X, OCLC 469950989
  • "The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick" - freak shop pamphlet printed c. 1884 to accompany the exhibition of the Elephant Man; published in The True History of the Elephant Man, pp. 173–175
  • Treves, Frederick (1923), The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences, London: Cassell and Co., OCLC 1546705

Further reading

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