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NLP was originally promoted by its co-founders in the 1970s as an effective and rapid form of [[psychotherapy|psychological therapy]],<ref>Steve Andreas (forward p.ii to Bandler & Grinder, 1979) and Stephen Lankton (1980, pp 9-13) state that by using NLP, problems such as [[phobia]]s and [[learning disability|learning disabilities]] may be disposed of in less than a single one-hour session; whereas with other therapies, progress may take weeks or months.</ref><ref name="Heap 1988 psychologist">Full reference missing. According to [[Michael Heap]] in a paper on NLP written in 1988 for ''The Psychologist'' (the monthly magazine of the British Psychological Society p. 261-262) one NLP workshop announcement claimed that spelling problems may be eliminated in five minutes (NLP Training Programme).</ref><ref name="Bandler and Grinder 1975a-quote">Bandler and Grinder state, "Our desire in this book [The Structure of Magic] is not to question the magical quality of our experience of these therapeutic wizards, but rather to show that this magic which they perform - psychotherapy...like other complex human activities such as painting, composing music, or placing a man on the moon - has structure and is, therefore learnable, given the appropriate resources. Neither is it our intention to claim that reading a book can ensure that you will have these dynamic qualities. We especially do not wish to make the claim that we have discovered the 'right' or most power approach to psychotherapy. We only desire to present a specific set of tools that seem to us to be implicit in the actions of these therapists, so you may begin or continue the never-ending process to improve, enrich and enlarge the skills you offer as a people-helper".</ref> capable of addressing the full range of problems which psychologists are likely to encounter, such as [[phobia]]s, [[major depressive disorder|depression]], [[habit disorder]], [[psychosomatic illness]]es, and [[learning disorder]]s.<ref>It was even alleged (Grinder & Bandler, 1981, p. 166) that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis can eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia, and can even cure a common cold (op.cit., p. 174)...(Also, op.cit., p. 169) Bandler and Grinder make the claim that by combining NLP methods with hypnotic regression, a person can be not only effectively cured of a problem, but also rendered amnesic for the fact that they had the problem in the first place. Thus, after a session of therapy, smokers may deny that they smoked before, even when their family and friends insist otherwise, and they are unable to account for such evidence as nicotine stains.</ref> It also espoused the potential for self-determination through overcoming learned limitations<ref>e.g. Bandler & Andreas 1985</ref> and emphasized well-being and healthy functioning. Later, it was promoted as a "science of excellence", derived from the study or "modeling"<ref name="Bandler & Grinder 1975b p.6">p.6 Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975b, The Structure of Magic: a book about language and therapy. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books</ref> of how successful or outstanding people in different fields obtain their results. It was claimed that these skills can be learned by anyone to improve their effectiveness both personally and professionally<ref name="O’Connor & Seymour 1993 p.xii">O'Connor, Joseph & John Seymour (1993). Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Psychological Skills for Understanding and Influencing People. London, UK: Thorsons. ISBN 1855383446.(see p.xii)</ref>
NLP was originally promoted by its co-founders in the 1970s as an effective and rapid form of [[psychotherapy|psychological therapy]],<ref>Steve Andreas (forward p.ii to Bandler & Grinder, 1979) and Stephen Lankton (1980, pp 9-13) state that by using NLP, problems such as [[phobia]]s and [[learning disability|learning disabilities]] may be disposed of in less than a single one-hour session; whereas with other therapies, progress may take weeks or months.</ref><ref name="Heap 1988 psychologist">Full reference missing. According to [[Michael Heap]] in a paper on NLP written in 1988 for ''The Psychologist'' (the monthly magazine of the British Psychological Society p. 261-262) one NLP workshop announcement claimed that spelling problems may be eliminated in five minutes (NLP Training Programme).</ref><ref name="Bandler and Grinder 1975a-quote">Bandler and Grinder state, "Our desire in this book [The Structure of Magic] is not to question the magical quality of our experience of these therapeutic wizards, but rather to show that this magic which they perform - psychotherapy...like other complex human activities such as painting, composing music, or placing a man on the moon - has structure and is, therefore learnable, given the appropriate resources. Neither is it our intention to claim that reading a book can ensure that you will have these dynamic qualities. We especially do not wish to make the claim that we have discovered the 'right' or most power approach to psychotherapy. We only desire to present a specific set of tools that seem to us to be implicit in the actions of these therapists, so you may begin or continue the never-ending process to improve, enrich and enlarge the skills you offer as a people-helper".</ref> capable of addressing the full range of problems which psychologists are likely to encounter, such as [[phobia]]s, [[major depressive disorder|depression]], [[habit disorder]], [[psychosomatic illness]]es, and [[learning disorder]]s.<ref>It was even alleged (Grinder & Bandler, 1981, p. 166) that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis can eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia, and can even cure a common cold (op.cit., p. 174)...(Also, op.cit., p. 169) Bandler and Grinder make the claim that by combining NLP methods with hypnotic regression, a person can be not only effectively cured of a problem, but also rendered amnesic for the fact that they had the problem in the first place. Thus, after a session of therapy, smokers may deny that they smoked before, even when their family and friends insist otherwise, and they are unable to account for such evidence as nicotine stains.</ref> It also espoused the potential for self-determination through overcoming learned limitations<ref>e.g. Bandler & Andreas 1985</ref> and emphasized well-being and healthy functioning. Later, it was promoted as a "science of excellence", derived from the study or "modeling"<ref name="Bandler & Grinder 1975b p.6">p.6 Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975b, The Structure of Magic: a book about language and therapy. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books</ref> of how successful or outstanding people in different fields obtain their results. It was claimed that these skills can be learned by anyone to improve their effectiveness both personally and professionally<ref name="O’Connor & Seymour 1993 p.xii">O'Connor, Joseph & John Seymour (1993). Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Psychological Skills for Understanding and Influencing People. London, UK: Thorsons. ISBN 1855383446.(see p.xii)</ref>


Despite its popularity,<ref name="Berne 2005"/> NLP has been largely ignored by conventional [[social science]] because of issues of professional credibility<ref name="Berne 2005">Berne, Eric (2005) "Chapter 10: How useful are 'popular' models of interpersonal communication?" in ''Interpersonal Communication''; Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom. p162-180. ISBN 9780415181075</ref> and insufficient [[empirical evidence]] to substantiate its models and claimed effectiveness.<ref name="Heap 1988"/> It appears to have little impact on academic psychology, and limited impact on mainstream psychotherapy and counselling.<ref name="Heap 1988">Heap. M., (1988) [http://www.mheap.com/nlp1.pdf Neurolinguistic programming: An interim verdict]. In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm, pp.268-280.</ref> However, it had some influence among private psychotherapists, including hypnotherapists, to the extent that some claim to be trained in NLP and apply it to their practice. NLP had greater influence in [[management training]], [[life coaching]],<ref name="Spence 2006">In a review of the coaching industry in Australia, 13% of respondents reported that they had been trained in NLP. – Spence, GB., Cavanagh, MJ., & Grant, AM., [http://www.bps.org.uk/downloadfile.cfm?file_uuid=EBD7BE5D-1143-DFD0-7E05-E12F3C26A0C5&ext=pdf Duty of care in an unregulated industry: Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches] ''International Coaching Psychology Review'' 1, 71-85.</ref> and the [[self-help]] industry.<ref name="Heap 1988 quote">Heap (1988) states, "How widespread or popular NLP has become in practice is difficult to say with precision, though. As an indication the number of people to have been trained to 'Practitioner' level in the UK since NLP's inception seems likely to number at least 50,000. Trainings in NLP are found across the world, principally in countries where English is the first language, but including Norway, Spain and Brazil. There is no unified structure to the NLP practitioner community. Probably in common with other emergent fields, there is diversity in both practice and organisation, and there are resulting tensions".</ref>
Despite its popularity,<ref name="Berne 2005"/> NLP has been largely ignored by conventional [[social science]] because of its abject lack of professional credibility<ref name="Berne 2005">Berne, Eric (2005) "Chapter 10: How useful are 'popular' models of interpersonal communication?" in ''Interpersonal Communication''; Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom. p162-180. ISBN 9780415181075</ref> and insufficient [[empirical evidence]] to substantiate its models and claimed effectiveness.<ref name="Heap 1988"/> It appears to have little impact on academic psychology, and limited impact on mainstream psychotherapy and counselling.<ref name="Heap 1988">Heap. M., (1988) [http://www.mheap.com/nlp1.pdf Neurolinguistic programming: An interim verdict]. In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm, pp.268-280.</ref> However, it had some influence among private psychotherapists, including hypnotherapists, to the extent that some claim to be trained in NLP and apply it to their practice. NLP had greater influence in [[management training]], [[life coaching]],<ref name="Spence 2006">In a review of the coaching industry in Australia, 13% of respondents reported that they had been trained in NLP. – Spence, GB., Cavanagh, MJ., & Grant, AM., [http://www.bps.org.uk/downloadfile.cfm?file_uuid=EBD7BE5D-1143-DFD0-7E05-E12F3C26A0C5&ext=pdf Duty of care in an unregulated industry: Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches] ''International Coaching Psychology Review'' 1, 71-85.</ref> and the [[self-help]] industry.<ref name="Heap 1988 quote">Heap (1988) states, "How widespread or popular NLP has become in practice is difficult to say with precision, though. As an indication the number of people to have been trained to 'Practitioner' level in the UK since NLP's inception seems likely to number at least 50,000. Trainings in NLP are found across the world, principally in countries where English is the first language, but including Norway, Spain and Brazil. There is no unified structure to the NLP practitioner community. Probably in common with other emergent fields, there is diversity in both practice and organisation, and there are resulting tensions".</ref>


==History and founding==
==History and founding==

Revision as of 01:03, 3 September 2010

Neuro-linguistic
programming
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Developers
Practitioners
Organisations

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a controversial approach to psychotherapy and organizational change based on "a model of interpersonal communication chiefly concerned with the relationship between successful patterns of behaviour and the subjective experiences (esp. patterns of thought) underlying them" and "a system of alternative therapy based on this which seeks to educate people in self-awareness and effective communication, and to change their patterns of mental and emotional behaviour".[1]

The co-founders, Richard Bandler and linguist John Grinder, claimed it would be instrumental in "finding ways to help people have better, fuller and richer lives".[2] They coined the title to denote their belief in a connection between neurological processes ('neuro'), language ('linguistic') and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ('programming') and that can be organized to achieve specific goals in life.[3][4][5]

NLP was originally promoted by its co-founders in the 1970s as an effective and rapid form of psychological therapy,[6][7][8] capable of addressing the full range of problems which psychologists are likely to encounter, such as phobias, depression, habit disorder, psychosomatic illnesses, and learning disorders.[9] It also espoused the potential for self-determination through overcoming learned limitations[10] and emphasized well-being and healthy functioning. Later, it was promoted as a "science of excellence", derived from the study or "modeling"[11] of how successful or outstanding people in different fields obtain their results. It was claimed that these skills can be learned by anyone to improve their effectiveness both personally and professionally[12]

Despite its popularity,[13] NLP has been largely ignored by conventional social science because of its abject lack of professional credibility[13] and insufficient empirical evidence to substantiate its models and claimed effectiveness.[14] It appears to have little impact on academic psychology, and limited impact on mainstream psychotherapy and counselling.[14] However, it had some influence among private psychotherapists, including hypnotherapists, to the extent that some claim to be trained in NLP and apply it to their practice. NLP had greater influence in management training, life coaching,[15] and the self-help industry.[16]

History and founding

Main article: History of neuro-linguistic programming
File:Frogsintoprinces.jpg
The first popular book on NLP, Frogs into Princes, first published in 1979, was based on transcripts of its co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, presenting at seminars.

NLP originated when Richard Bandler, a student at University of California, Santa Cruz, was listening to and selecting portions of taped therapy sessions of the late Gestalt therapist Fritz Perls as a project for Robert Spitzer.[17][18] Bandler believed he recognized particular word and sentence structures which facilitated the acceptance of Perls' therapeutic suggestions. Bandler took this idea to one of his university lecturers, John Grinder, a linguist. Together they studied Perls' via tape and observed a second therapist Virginia Satir to produce what they termed the meta model, a model for gathering information and challenging a client's language and underlying thinking.[19]

The meta model was presented in 1975 in two volumes, The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy and The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change, in which they expressed their belief that the therapeutic "magic" as performed in therapy by Perls and Satir, and by performers in any complex human activity, had structure that could be learned by others given the appropriate models. They believed that implicit in the behavior of Perls and Satir was the ability to challenge distortion, generalization and deletion in a client's language. For example:

  • Client: "I just feel terrible."
  • Therapist: "What specifically do you 'feel terrible' about?"
  • Client: "... my performance yesterday."
  • Therapist: "What 'performance', specifically?"
  • "..."

The linguistic aspects were based in part on previous work by Grinder using Noam Chomsky's transformational grammar.[20] Challenging linguistic distortions, specifying generalizations, and recovery of deleted information in the client utterances, the surface structure, was supposed to yield a more complete representation of the underlying deep structure, and to have therapeutic benefit.[21] They drew ideas from Gregory Bateson and Alfred Korzybski, particularly about human modeling and ideas associated with their expression, "the map is not the territory".[22][23]

Satir and Bateson each agreed to write a preface to Bandler and Grinder's first book. Bateson also introduced the pair to Milton Erickson who became their third model. Erickson also wrote a preface to Bandler and Grinder's two-volume book series based on their observations of Erickson working with clients, Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, Volumes I & II.[24] These volumes also focused on the language patterns and some non-verbal patterns that Bandler and Grinder believed they observed in Erickson. While the meta model is intentionally specific, the Milton model was described as "artfully vague" and metaphoric; the inverse of the meta model. It was used in combination with the meta model as a softener, to induce trance, and to deliver indirect therapeutic suggestion. In addition to the first two models, Bandler, Grinder and a group of students who joined them during the early period of development of NLP, proposed other models and techniques, such as anchoring, reframing, submodalities, perceptual positions, and representational systems.

At the time, the human potential movement was developing into an industry; at the centre of this growth was the Esalen Institute at Big Sur, California. Perls had led numerous Gestalt therapy seminars at Esalen. Satir was an early leader and Bateson was a guest teacher. Bandler and Grinder claimed that in addition to being a therapeutic method, NLP was also a study of communication, and by the 1970s Grinder and Bandler were marketing it as a business tool, claiming that "if any human being can do anything, so can you". After 150 students paid $1,000 each for a ten-day workshop in Santa Cruz, California, Bandler and Grinder gave up academic writing and produced popular books from seminar transcripts, such as Frogs into Princes, which sold more than 270,000 copies. According to court documents, Bandler's NLP business made more than $800,000 in 1980.[19]

Applications

Psychotherapeutic

The early books about NLP had a psychotherapeutic focus especially given that the early models were psychotherapists. As an approach to psychotherapy, NLP shares similar core assumptions and foundations in common with some contemporary brief and systemic practices[25][26][27], such as solution focused brief therapy.[28][29] NLP has also been acknowledged as having influenced these practices[27][30] with its reframing techniques[31][32] which seeks to achieve behaviour change by shifting its context or meaning[33], for example, by finding the positive connotation of a thought or behaviour.

The two main therapeutic uses of NLP are: (1) use as an adjunct by therapists[34] practicing in other therapeutic disciplines, and (2) as a specific therapy called Neurolinguistic Psychotherapy (NLPt)[35] which is recognized by the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy[36] with accreditation governed at first by the Association for Neuro Linguistic Programming[37] and more recently by its daughter organization the Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy and Counselling Association.[38]

Use outside psychotherapy

While the main goals of neuro-linguistic programming are therapeutic, the patterns have also been adapted for use outside psychotherapy for interpersonal communications and persuasion including business communication, management training,[39] sales,[40] sports,[41] and interpersonal influence.[42] Other applications include coaching, team building, public speaking, and negotiation.[43] The UK Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development includes a number of NLP courses including an application of NLP to coaching in its 2010 training programme.[44] A range of books have been published related to the application of NLP to coaching.[45]

Criticism and controversy

Professional credibility issues

In the early 1980s, NLP was hailed as an important advance in psychotherapy and counseling,[46] and attracted some interest in counseling research and clinical psychology. In the mid-1980s, reviews in The Journal of Counseling Psychology[47] and by the National Research Council (1988; NRC) committee[42] found little or no empirical basis for the claims about preferred representational systems (PRS) or assumptions of NLP. Since then, NLP has been regarded with suspicion or outright hostility by some researchers in the academic, psychiatric and medical professions.[citation needed]

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I[48] with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, the NLP brand was adopted by other training organizations.[42] Some time afterwards, John Grinder collaborated with various people to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which claimed to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP[23][49] Richard Bandler also published new processes based on submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis.[50]

Ownership dispute

In July 1996, after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder and others, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and also the sole right to use the term under trademark.[51][52] At the same time, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) successfully asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally that "NLP" was a generic term rather than intellectual property.[53]

Despite the NLP community's being splintered, most NLP material acknowledges the early work of co-founders Bandler and Grinder, and also the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s.

Varying standards

In 2001, the lawsuits were settled with Bandler and Grinder agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Since 1978, a 20-day NLP practitioner certification program had been in existence for training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. As NLP evolved, and the applications began to be extended beyond therapy, new ways of training were developed and the course structures and design changed. Course lengths and style vary from institute to institute. In the 1990s, following attempts to put NLP on a regulated footing in the UK, other governments began certifying NLP courses and providers; for example, in Australia, a Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework.[54] However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no "official" best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP",[55] the training standards and quality differ greatly.[56] The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level of competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz, the length of training in Europe varies from 2–3 days for the hobbyist to 35–40 days over at least nine months to achieve a professional level of competence.[56]

In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting its training in line with European therapy standards.

In 2001, an off-shoot application of NLP, neuro-linguistic psychotherapy, was recognized by United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy as an experimental constructivist form of psychotherapy.[57]

Today, NLP is a lucrative industry, and many variants of the practice are found in seminars, workshops, books and audio programs in the form of exercises and principles intended to influence behavioral and emotional change in self and others. There is great variation in the depth and breadth of training and standards of practitioners, and some disagreement between those in the field about which patterns are, or are not, "NLP".

Scientific criticism

Main article: NLP and science

There are three main scientific criticisms of NLP. First, critics argue that NLP's claims for scientific respectability are not based on the scientific method. In response, advocates of NLP argue that NLP is a pragmatic discipline, largely interested in what "works" rather than existing theory. Second, there is a lack of empirical research or evidence to support the core aspects of NLP or the claim that NLP is an effective and rapid set of techniques for enhancing psycho-therapeutic practice, interpersonal communication and social influence. One of the originators of NLP, John Grinder, retorts that the meta model was based on his expertise in linguistics and empirical work in collaboration with Richard Bandler in the early 1970s. However, critics maintain that the experimental research that does exist has been overall unsupportive of the central assumptions and core models of NLP, and that it is therefore up to the proponents to back up their models and claims of effectiveness with evidence.

In an article published in 2005, psychologist Grant Devilly stated that at the time it was introduced, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy, and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appear in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification. However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further.[46]

Critics argue that NLP's claims for scientific respectability are not based on the scientific method. They believe the title of "neuro-linguistic programming" is simply a pretense to a legitimate discipline like neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and psychology. Michael Corballis (1999) stated that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability".[58] Furthermore, NLP adapted many scientific sounding terms, such as eye accessing cues, metamodeling, micromodeling, metaprogramming, neurological levels, presuppositions, representational systems, and submodalities, intended to obfuscate and to give the impression of a scientific discipline. According to Canadian skeptic Beyerstein (1995) "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies."[59]

There is a lack of empirical research or evidence to support the core aspects of NLP and the claim that NLP is an effective and rapid set of techniques for enhancing psycho-therapeutic practice, interpersonal communication and social influence.[14] NLP is rarely discussed in learned textbooks and has a limited number of journal articles dedicated. Most often, NLP has been taught via short seminars and workshops, audio programs and books in a variety of application areas rather than at university, although it is sometimes taught at continuing educational colleges connected to university. A small number of universities offer postgraduate courses in neuro-linguistic programming in the United Kingdom, and in Australia a postgraduate course is accredited.[54]

Heap states that generalizations about the mind and behavior, such as the those purported by NLP proponents, can only be arrived at through prolonged, systematic, and meticulous investigation of human subjects using empirical procedures. Heap (1988) stated "There is just no other way of doing this". In general, authors in the field of NLP have rarely expressed an interest in providing a coherent theory; instead, they often state their primary aim in modeling "what works". They also claim there is ample evidence for NLP as an eclectic approach drawing from existing "cognitive-behavioral approaches, Gestalt therapy, hypnotherapy, family therapy, and brief therapy.[60]

John Grinder offers a counterexample arguing in retrospect that the meta-model, for example, drew from his expertise in transformational grammar and empirical work in collaboration with Bandler between 1973 and 1975.[23] Tosey and Mathison state "the pragmatic and often anti-theoretical stance by the founders has left a legacy of little engagement between practitioner and academic communities".[43][61]

The experimental research that does exist was mostly done in the 1980s and 1990s, and on the whole was unsupportive of the central assumptions and core models of NLP.[62] It consisted of laboratory experimentation testing Bandler and Grinder's hypotheses[63] that a person's preferred sensory mode of thinking can be revealed by observing eye movement cues and sensory predicates in language use.[43] A research review conducted by Christopher Sharpley which focused on preferred representational systems, in 1984,[64] followed by another review in 1987 in response to a critique published by Einspruch and Forman,[65] concluded that there was little evidence for its usefulness as an effective counseling tool. Reviewing the literature in 1988, Michael Heap also concluded that objective and fair investigations had shown no support for NLP claims about "preferred representational systems".[14] A research committee[42] working for United States National Research Council led by Daniel Druckman came to two conclusions. First, the committee "found little if any" evidence to support NLP's assumptions or to indicate that it is effective as a strategy for social influence. "It assumes that by tracking another's eye movements and language, an NLP trainer can shape the person's thoughts, feelings, and opinions (Dilts, 1983[66]). There is no scientific support for these assumptions."[67] Secondly, the committee members "were impressed with the modeling approach used to develop the technique. The technique was developed from careful observations of the way three master psychotherapists conducted their sessions, emphasizing imitation of verbal and nonverbal behaviors... This then led the committee to take up the topic of expert modeling in the second phase of its work."[67] Von Bergen et al. (1997) state that "the most telling commentary on NLP may be that the latest revision of his text on enhancing human performance, Druckman (Druckman & Bjork 1991) omitted all reference to Neurolinguistic Programming."[68]

These studies, in particular Sharpley's literature review, marked a decline in empirical research of NLP, and particularly in matching sensory predicates and its use in counsellor-client relationship in counseling psychology.[69] Barry Beyerstein (1995) states that NLP was based on outmoded scientific theories, and that its "explanation" of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function was no more than crude analogy.[59] According to Efran and Lukens (1990), claiming that "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy"(p. 122).[70]

Norcross et al. (2006) conducted a Delphi poll of American doctoral-level mental health professionals and academics in psychology and psychotherapy, 73.3% of respondents reported they were familiar with NLP as an approach, and on average rated NLP for the treatment of mental and behavioral disorders between possibly and probably discredited. The ratings given by psychologists from the cognitive and behavioral orientations was significantly less favourable towards NLP than those from the humanistic and psychodynamic orientations.[71] A follow-up study by Norcross et al. (2008) found that NLP for the treatment of drug addiction was rated as among the top ten most discredited of the interventions included in the study.[72]

NLP practitioners and academics Tosey and Mathison[when?], have argued that the experimental approach is not always appropriate for researching NLP and propose that NLP modeling could be used to explore phenomenology.[73][74] Gareth Roderique-Davies (2009) stated that "Phenomenological research is free from hypotheses, pre-conceptions and assumptions, and seeks to describe rather than explain. Given the claims made by proponents of NLP, this adds little to the credibility debate and would produce reports concerning the experience from the perspective of the individual rather than confirmation of the claimed efficacy. The fact remains that NLP proponents make specific claims about how NLP works and what it can do and this compels providing evidence to substantiate these claims." He argued that the prosposal to conduct phenomenology research using NLP modeling "constitutes an admission that NLP does not have an evidence base and that NLP practitioners are seeking a post-hoc credibility.".[75]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Draft revision September, 2009, "neurolinguistic programming n. a model of interpersonal communication chiefly concerned with the relationship between successful patterns of behaviour and the subjective experiences (esp. patterns of thought) underlying them; a system of alternative therapy based on this which seeks to educate people in self-awareness and effective communication, and to change their patterns of mental and emotional behaviour."[1]
  2. ^ From the book jacket of Bandler and Grinder (1975b)
  3. ^ Tosey, P. & Mathison, J., (2006) "Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming Centre for Management Learning & Development, School of Management, University of Surrey.
  4. ^ Dilts, R., Grinder, J., Delozier , J., and Bandler, R. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I: The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. p. 2. ISBN 0916990079.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ However, Bandler has claimed that humans are literally programmable. "When I started using the term 'programming,' people became really angry. They said things like, 'You're saying we're like machines. We're human beings, not robots.' Actually, what I was saying was just the opposite. We're the only machine that can program itself. We are 'meta-programmable.' We can set deliberately designed, automated programs that work by themselves to take care of boring, mundane tasks, thus freeing up our minds to do other, more interesting and creative, things." Bandler, R., (2008) Richard Bandler's Guide to Trance-formation: How to Harness the Power of Hypnosis to Ignite Effortless and Lasting Change Publisher: Health Communications (HCi) ISBN 0757307779
  6. ^ Steve Andreas (forward p.ii to Bandler & Grinder, 1979) and Stephen Lankton (1980, pp 9-13) state that by using NLP, problems such as phobias and learning disabilities may be disposed of in less than a single one-hour session; whereas with other therapies, progress may take weeks or months.
  7. ^ Full reference missing. According to Michael Heap in a paper on NLP written in 1988 for The Psychologist (the monthly magazine of the British Psychological Society p. 261-262) one NLP workshop announcement claimed that spelling problems may be eliminated in five minutes (NLP Training Programme).
  8. ^ Bandler and Grinder state, "Our desire in this book [The Structure of Magic] is not to question the magical quality of our experience of these therapeutic wizards, but rather to show that this magic which they perform - psychotherapy...like other complex human activities such as painting, composing music, or placing a man on the moon - has structure and is, therefore learnable, given the appropriate resources. Neither is it our intention to claim that reading a book can ensure that you will have these dynamic qualities. We especially do not wish to make the claim that we have discovered the 'right' or most power approach to psychotherapy. We only desire to present a specific set of tools that seem to us to be implicit in the actions of these therapists, so you may begin or continue the never-ending process to improve, enrich and enlarge the skills you offer as a people-helper".
  9. ^ It was even alleged (Grinder & Bandler, 1981, p. 166) that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis can eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia, and can even cure a common cold (op.cit., p. 174)...(Also, op.cit., p. 169) Bandler and Grinder make the claim that by combining NLP methods with hypnotic regression, a person can be not only effectively cured of a problem, but also rendered amnesic for the fact that they had the problem in the first place. Thus, after a session of therapy, smokers may deny that they smoked before, even when their family and friends insist otherwise, and they are unable to account for such evidence as nicotine stains.
  10. ^ e.g. Bandler & Andreas 1985
  11. ^ p.6 Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975b, The Structure of Magic: a book about language and therapy. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books
  12. ^ O'Connor, Joseph & John Seymour (1993). Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Psychological Skills for Understanding and Influencing People. London, UK: Thorsons. ISBN 1855383446.(see p.xii)
  13. ^ a b Berne, Eric (2005) "Chapter 10: How useful are 'popular' models of interpersonal communication?" in Interpersonal Communication; Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom. p162-180. ISBN 9780415181075
  14. ^ a b c d Heap. M., (1988) Neurolinguistic programming: An interim verdict. In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm, pp.268-280.
  15. ^ In a review of the coaching industry in Australia, 13% of respondents reported that they had been trained in NLP. – Spence, GB., Cavanagh, MJ., & Grant, AM., Duty of care in an unregulated industry: Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches International Coaching Psychology Review 1, 71-85.
  16. ^ Heap (1988) states, "How widespread or popular NLP has become in practice is difficult to say with precision, though. As an indication the number of people to have been trained to 'Practitioner' level in the UK since NLP's inception seems likely to number at least 50,000. Trainings in NLP are found across the world, principally in countries where English is the first language, but including Norway, Spain and Brazil. There is no unified structure to the NLP practitioner community. Probably in common with other emergent fields, there is diversity in both practice and organisation, and there are resulting tensions".
  17. ^ According to Robert Spitzer (1992), Bandler selected portions of Perls transcripts to be published in The Gestalt Approach and Eye Witness to Therapy (1973).
  18. ^ Spitzer, R. (1992) Virginia Satir and the Origins of NLP, Anchor Point, 6(7)
  19. ^ a b Frank Clancy and Heidi Yorkshire (1989) "The Bandler Method". 'Mother Jones' Magazine
  20. ^ John Grinder, Suzette Elgin (1973). "A Guide to Transformational Grammar: History, Theory, Practice". Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0030801265. Reviewed by Frank H. Nuessel, Jr. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 58, No. 5/6 (Sep. - Oct., 1974), pp. 282-283
  21. ^ Bradley, E., Biedermann, HJ. (1985) "Bandler and Grinder's neurolinguistic programming: Its historical context and contribution." Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 22(1) pp.59-62.
  22. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
  23. ^ a b c Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. ISBN 0-9717223-0-7.
  24. ^ Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume I ISBN 091699001X
  25. ^ Rubin Battino (2002) Expectation: The Very Brief Therapy Book. Crown House Publishing. ISBN 1845900286
  26. ^ Kerry, S. (2009) Pretreatment expectations of psychotherapy clients, University of Alberta (Canada), Template:AAT
  27. ^ a b Beyebach, M., & Rodríguez Morejón, A. (1999). Some thoughts on integration in solution-focused therapy. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 18, 24–42.
  28. ^ Bill O'Connell (2005) Solution-focused therapy (Brief therapy series). Sage; Second Edition edition Google books p.9
  29. ^ Windy Dryden (2007) Dryden's handbook of individual therapy. 5th edition. Sage. ISBN 1412922380 p.382, Google books
  30. ^ By Pesut, Daniel J. (1991) The art, science, and techniques of reframing in psychiatric mental health nursing. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, Vol 12, 9-18. doi:10.3109/01612849109058206
  31. ^ John W Maag (1999) Why they say no: Foundational precises and techniques for managing resistance. Focus on Exceptional Children. 32,1.
  32. ^ John W Maag (2000) Managing resistance, Intervention in School and Clinic 35,3.
  33. ^ Bandler & Grinder 1982 as cited by Maag 1999, 2000
  34. ^ Field, ES., (1990) Neurolinguistic programming as an adjunct to other psychotherapeutic/hypnotherapeutic interventions. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. PMID 2296919
  35. ^ Bridoux, D., Weaver, M., (2000) "Neuro-linguistic psychotherapy." In Therapeutic perspectives on working with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients. Davies, Dominic (Ed); Neal, Charles (Ed). (pp. 73-90). Buckingham, England: Open University Press (2000) xviii, 187 pp. ISBN 0335203337
  36. ^ UKCP. "United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy - List of Recognized Experimental Constructivist forms of therapies". Psychotherapy.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
  37. ^ "The road to recognition: NLP in Psychotherapy and Counselling". Retrieved 29 Jan 2010.
  38. ^ "Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy Counselling Association NLPtCA". Retrieved 29 Jan 2010.
  39. ^ Yemm, G., (2006) "Can NLP help or harm your business?" Industrial and Commercial Training, 38(1), pp. 12-17(6) doi:10.1108/ 00197850610645990
  40. ^ Zastrow, C., "Social workers and salesworkers: Similarities and differences." Journal of Independent Social Work. 4(3) p.7-16
  41. ^ Ingalls, Joan S. (1988) "Cognition and athletic behavior: An investigation of the NLP principle of congruence." Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol 48(7-B), pp.2090. OCLC 42614014
  42. ^ a b c d Druckman and Swets (eds.) (1988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education National Academy Press. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920010212
  43. ^ a b c Tosey P. & Mathison, J., "Fabulous Creatures Of HRD: A Critical Natural History Of Neuro-Linguistic Programming ", University of Surrey Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Human Resource Development Research & Practice across Europe, Oxford Brookes Business School, 26th–28th June 2007
  44. ^ [2]
  45. ^ O'Connor, J. & Lages, A. (2004) Coaching with NLP, Element Books Ltd.
  46. ^ a b Devilly GJ (2005) "Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry" Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39:437–45(9) doi:10.1111/j.1440-1614.2005.01601.x
  47. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 34 (1): 103–107, 105. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.34.1.103.
  48. ^ Dilts, R., Grinder, J., Delozier , J., and Bandler, R. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I: The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990079.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
  50. ^ Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change ISBN 0911226273
  51. ^ "NLP Knowledge Centre". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 1999-02-24. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
  52. ^ "NLP Schedule". NLP Schedule. Archived from the original on 2008-03-28. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
  53. ^ "ANLP News: NLP Matters". ANLP.
  54. ^ a b "NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming". Retrieved 2009-06-25.
  55. ^ Carroll RT (2009-02-23). "neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
  56. ^ a b Schütz, P. "A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective". Retrieved 2006-12-24.
  57. ^ McDonald, L (2001). "Neurolinguistic programming in mental health". Communication and Mental Illness. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 297–302. ISBN 1853027324. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ Corballis, MC., "Are we in our right minds?" In Sala, S., (ed.) (1999), Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons. ISBN 0-471-98303-9 (pp. 25-41) see page p.41
  59. ^ a b Beyerstein, B. 'Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience', Centre for Professional and Curriculum Development, Dept. Psychology, Simon Fraser University.
  60. ^ For more extensive discussion of NLP's theory in relation learning see Tosey and Mathison (2003; 2008)."[3].
  61. ^ They add that "The literature in academic journals is minimal; in the field of HRD see (Georges 1996), (Ashok & Santhakumar 2002), (Thompson, Courtney, & Dickson 2002). There has been virtually no published investigation into how NLP is used in practice. The empirical research consists largely of laboratory-based studies from the 1980s and 1990s, which investigated two particular notions from within NLP, the 'eye movement' model (Bandler & Grinder 1979), and the notion of the 'primary representational system', according to which individuals have a preferred sensory mode of internal imagery indicated by their linguistic predicates (Grinder & Bandler 1976)." - Tosey and Mathison 2007
  62. ^ See NLP and science for a description of the literature.
  63. ^ Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 149 (p.8 (quote), pp.15, 24, 30, 45, 52). ISBN 0911226192.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ Sharpley, C.F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
  65. ^ Einspruch, E.L., & Forman, B.D. (1985). "Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming". Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 589-596. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.32.4.589
  66. ^ Dilts, Robert (1983) Roots of Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Meta Publications, Capitola, CA, ISBN 0916990125
  67. ^ a b Druckman, Daniel (2004) "Be All That You Can Be: Enhancing Human Performance" Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Volume 34, Number 11, November 2004, pp. 2234-2260(27) Error: Bad DOI specified!
  68. ^ Von Bergen et al (1997) Selected alternative training techniques in HRD. Human Resource Development Quarterly8,281-294.doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920080403
  69. ^ Gelso and Fassinger (1990) "Counseling Psychology: Theory and Research on Interventions" Annual Review of Psychology doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002035
  70. ^ Efran, J.S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by W.W. Norton, New York. ISBN 0393701034
  71. ^ Norcross et. al. (2006) Discredited Psychological Treatments and Tests: A Delphi Poll. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/a0015240
  72. ^ Norcross, John C. , Thomas P. Hogan, Gerald P. Koocher (2008) Clinician's Guide to Evidence-based Practices. Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 978-0195335323 (Page 198)
  73. ^ "Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Research". Retrieved 22 February 2010.
  74. ^ Mathison, J. & Tosey, P. (2010) "Exploring inner landscapes through psychophenomenology: The contribution of neuro-linguistic programming to innovations in researching first person experience" Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, Volume 5, Number 1, 2010 , pp. 63-82(20 doi:10.1108/17465641011042035
  75. ^ http://jarhe.research.glam.ac.uk/media/files/documents/2009-07-17/JARHE_V1.2_Jul09_Web_pp57-63.pdf

Further reading

Books
  • Andreas, Steve & Charles Faulkner (Eds.) (1996). NLP: the new technology of achievement. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-688-14619-8.
  • Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN 0911226192
  • Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books. 198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
  • Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0911226257
  • Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change ISBN 0911226273
  • Bostic St Clair, Carmen & John Grinder (2002). Whispering in the Wind. Scotts Valley, CA: J & C Enterprises. ISBN 0-9717223-0-7.
  • Bradbury, A., Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Time for an Informed Review. Skeptical Intelligencer 11, 2008.
  • Burn, Gillian (2005). NLP Pocketbook. Alresford, Hants SO24 9JH, United Kingdom: Management Pocketbooks Ltd. ISBN 978-1-903776-31-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  • Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being
  • Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990249
  • Dilts, Robert B & Judith A DeLozier (2000). Encyclopaedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0-9701540-0-3.
  • Dilts, Robert B, Todd Epstein, Robert W Dilts (1991). Tools for Dreamers: Strategies for Creativity. Palo Alto, CA: Meta Publications. ISBN 0-916990-26-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Dilts, Robert B (1992). Cognitive Patterns of Jesus of Nazareth. Ben Lomond, CA: Dynamic Learning Publications. ISBN -.
  • Druckman, Daniel & John A Swets, (Eds) (1988). Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques. Washington DC: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-03792-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Ellerton PhD, CMC, Roger (2005). Live Your Dreams Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Ottawa, Canada: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1-4120-4709-9. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume I ISBN 091699001X
  • Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scoots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
  • Grinder, John (2003). Interview in London on New Code of NLP. Inspiritive, Sydney Australia.
  • Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scoots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
  • Grinder, M. Lori Stephens (Ed) (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt ISBN 1555520367
  • Bostic St Clair, Carmen & John Grinder (2002). Whispering in the Wind. Scotts Valley, CA: J & C Enterprises. ISBN 0-9717223-0-7.
  • Grinder, John & Richard Bandler (1975). The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0049-8.
  • Harling I.G., Nyrup M.A., "Mischief - Radical Hypnosis & Mind-Control", Spellbound Books, 2010 ISBN 978-87-990481-2-0 - 'Mischief' is the author's previous books, 'Sleight of Mind' & 'Geist' in one title.
  • Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation
  • Laborde, Genie Z. Laborde (1988). Fine Tune Your Brain. Palo Alto, California: Syntony Publishing. ISBN 0-933347-30-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  • Newbrook, Mark, 'Linguistic aspects of "Neurolinguistic programming"', Skeptical Intelligencer 11, 2008.
  • O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J. (preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming: The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224 pages. ISBN 1852740736
  • O'Connor, Joseph & Ian McDermott (1996). Principles of NLP. London, UK: Thorsons. ISBN 0-7225-3195-8.
  • Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X
  • Tosey P. & Mathison, J., "Fabulous Creatures Of HRD: A Critical Natural History Of Neuro-Linguistic Programming ", University of Surrey Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Human Resource Development Research & Practice across Europe, Oxford Brookes Business School, 26 – 28 June 2007.
  • Walker, Wolfgang (1996). Abenteuer Kommunikation - Bateson, Perls, Satir, Erickson und die Anfänge des Neurolinguistischen Programmierens. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. ISBN 3-608-91976-7.
Journal articles
  • Bliemeister, J (1988). "Empirische Überprufung zentraler theoretischer Konstrukte des Neurolinguistischen Programmierens (NLP) (Empirical verification of central theoretical constructs of neurolinguistic programming (NLP).)". Zeitschrift für klinische Psychologie, Forschung und Praxis. 17(1): 21–30.
  • Bradley, E J & Heinz J Biedermann (1985). "Bandler and Grinder's Communication Analysis: Its historical context and contribution". Psychotherapy, Theory and Research. 22: 59–62. doi:10.1037/h0088527.
  • Platt, Garry (2001). "NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible?". Training Journal. May 2001: 10–15.
    See NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible?[dead link‍] Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.
  • Morgan, Dylan A (1993). "Scientific Assessment of NLP". Journal of the National Council for Psychotherapy & Hypnotherapy Register. Spring 1993.
  • Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal, Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 8(4): 281–294.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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