Imperialism: Difference between revisions
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{{For|the computer game|Imperialism (video game)}} |
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[[File:The British Empire.png|thumb|right|300px|Territories that have been, or remain, part of the [[British Empire]]]] |
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'''Imperialism''', as defined by ''The Dictionary of Human Geography'', is "the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural and territorial relationship, usually between states and often in the form of an [[empire]], based on domination and subordination." The Imperialism of the last 500 years is described in the above work as a primarily western undertaking that employs "expansionist – [[mercantilist]] and latterly [[communist]] – systems."<ref>Johnston, Ronald John (2000). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=375 The Dictionary of Human Geography]'' (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 375. ISBN 0631205616.</ref> Geographical domains include the [[Mongolian Empire]], [[Roman Empire]], the [[Ottoman Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the [[Portuguese Empire]], the [[Spanish Empire]], the [[Dutch Empire]], the [[Persian Empire]], the [[French colonial empire|French Empire]],<ref>http://i-cias.com/e.o/imperialism.htm ''Ottoman Empire,'' ''French Empire,'' Encyclopedia of the Orient</ref> the [[Russian Empire]],<ref>http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/ ''The Empire that was Russia,'' Library of Congress</ref> the [[American Empire]], the [[History of China|Chinese Empire]], or the [[British Empire]],<ref>http://www.britishempire.co.uk/ ''The British Empire''</ref> but the term can equally be applied to domains of knowledge, beliefs, values and expertise, such as the empires of [[Christianity]] (see [[Christendom]])<ref>http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3350 John B Cobb, ''Christianity and Empire,''</ref> or [[Islam]] (see [[Caliphate]]).<ref>http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/ ''Islam Empire of Faith''</ref> Imperialism is usually [[autocratic]], and also sometimes monolithic<ref>http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj93/rees.htm John Rees, ''Imperialism: globalisation, the state and war,'' International Socialism Journal 93, Winter 2001</ref>{{Clarify|date=June 2009}} in character. |
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==Overview== |
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Imperialism is found in the histories of [[Assyrian Empire]], [[History of China|Chinese Empire]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], the [[Persian Empire]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]] (see [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]), ancient [[Egypt]], and [[India]] and a basic component to the conquests of [[Genghis Khan]] and other warlords. Although imperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to the activities of nations such as the [[British Empire|United Kingdom]], [[French colonial empire|France]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Italian Empire|Italy]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]], and the [[American Empire|United States]] in the late 19th through the middle 20th centuries, e.g. the "[[Scramble for Africa]]" and the "[[Open Door Policy]]" in China. |
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[[Image:ColonialAfrica 1914.png|thumb|right|260px| [[Scramble for Africa]]]] |
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[[Image:Punch Rhodes Colossus.png|thumb|right|180px|[[Cecil Rhodes]]: [[Cape-Cairo railway]] project. Founded the [[De Beers Mining Company]] and owned the [[British South Africa Company]], which established [[Rhodesia]] for itself. He liked to "paint the map [[United Kingdom|British]] red," and declared: "all of these stars ... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets."<ref>[[S. Gertrude Millin]], ''Rhodes'', London, 1933, p.138</ref> ]] |
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The word itself is derived from the Latin verb ''imperare'' (to command) and the Roman concept of [[imperium]], while the actual term 'Imperialism' was coined in the 16th century,<ref>[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50112914?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=imperialism&first=1&max_to_show=10 Oxford English Dictionary online] (subscription required</ref> reflecting what are now seen as the imperial policies of [[Belgium]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]] in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[the Americas]]. Imperialism not only describes colonial, territorial policies, but also economic and/or military dominance and influence. |
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The ideas of imperialism put forward by historians John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson during 19th century European imperialism were influential. |
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They rejected the notion that "imperialism" required formal, legal control by one government over another country. "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. A key to the thought of Robinson and Gallagher is the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'"<ref>Louis, Wm. Roger. (1976) ''Imperialism'' page 4.</ref> |
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The term imperialism should not be confused with ‘colonialism’ as it often is. Edward Said suggests that imperialism involved “the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory’”. He goes on to say colonialism refers to the “implanting of settlements on a distant territory”. Robert Young supports this thinking as he puts forward that imperialism operates from the centre, it is a state policy, and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons whereas colonialism is nothing more than development for settlement or commercial intentions.<ref name="Gilmartin, Mary 2008. pg.116">Gilmartin, Mary. Gallaher, C. et al., 2008. Key Concepts in Political Geography, Sage Publications Ltd. : Imperialism/Colonialism. pg.116</ref> |
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Europe’s expansion into territorial imperialism had much to do with the great economic benefit from collecting resources from colonies, in combination with assuming political control often by military means. Most notably, the “British exploited the political weakness of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] state, and, while military activity was important at various times, the economic and administrative incorporation of local elites was also of crucial significance”. Although a substantial number of colonies had been designed or subject to provide economic profit (mostly through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries), Fieldhouse suggests that in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in places such as Africa and Asia, this idea is not necessarily valid<ref>Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg.183-184</ref>: |
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<blockquote> |
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Modern empires were not artificially constructed economic machines. The second expansion of Europe was a complex historical process in which political, social and emotional forces in Europe and on the periphery were more influential than calculated imperialism. Individual colonies might serve an economic purpose; collectively no empire had any definable function, economic or otherwise. Empires represented only a particular phase in the ever-changing relationship of Europe with the rest of the world: analogies with industrial systems or investment in real estate were simply misleading.<ref>Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg.184</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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This form of [[economic imperialism]] described above was an early form of [[capitalism]], as European merchants had the ability to “roam the high seas and appropriate surpluses from around the world (sometimes peaceably, sometimes violently) and to concentrate them in Europe.”<ref>Harvey, D., 2006. Spaces of Global Capitalism: A Theory of Uneven Geographical Development, Verso. pg. 91</ref> |
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Although commonly used to imply forcible imposition of a government control by an outside country, especially in a new, unconnected territory, the term is sometimes also used to describe loose or indirect political or economic influence or control of weak states by more powerful ones.<ref name=IESS>"Imperialism." ''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences'', 2nd edition.</ref> If the dominant country's influence is felt in social and cultural circles, such as "foreign" music being popular with young people, it may be described as [[cultural imperialism]]. |
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==Justification== |
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A controversial aspect of imperialism is the imperial power’s defence and justification of such actions. Most controversial of all is the justification of imperialism done on scientific grounds. [[J. A. Hobson]] identifies this justification: “It is desirable that the earth should be peopled, governed, and developed, as far as possible, by the races which can do this work best, i.e. by the races of highest 'social efficiency'.”<ref>Hobson, J. A. "Imperialism: a study." Cosimo, Inc., 2005. pg. 154</ref> This is clearly the racial argument, which pays heed to other ideas such as the “[[white man's burden|White Man’s Burden]]” prevalent at the turn of the twentieth century. |
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The principles of imperialism are often deeply connected to the policies and practices of British Imperialism "during the last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than by historical description."<ref>Hobson, J. A. "Imperialism: a study." Cosimo, Inc., 2005. pg. V</ref> British Imperialist strategy centred on the fundamental concept of ''terra nullius'' (Latin expression which stems from [[Roman law]] meaning ‘empty land’). The country of [[Australia]] serves as a case study in relation to British imperialism. British settlement and colonial rule of the island of Australia in the eighteenth century was premised on ''terra nullius'', for it was seen as a land that was ‘empty’ of inhabitants. Despite British claims, an estimated 350,000 indigenous peoples were already living in Australia in the era of British conquest. The indigenous population suffered through years of political, social, and territorial oppression, however Aborigines were granted the right to vote comparatively early in Commonwealth elections, depending on whether their state allowed it. An example is in 1856, in NSW, where Aborigines were granted equal voting rights. It should be noted that the 1968 referendum only allowed the Commonwealth to count and administer Aborigines. |
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This form of imperialism can also be seen in British Columbia, Canada. In the 1840s, the territory of British Columbia was divided into two regions, one space for the native population, and the other for non-natives. The indigenous peoples were often forcibly removed from their homes onto reserves. These actions were “justified by a dominant belief among British colonial officials that land occupied by Native people was not being used efficiently and productively.”<ref name="Gilmartin, Mary 2008. pg.116"/> The abovementioned examples of imperialism are consistently racially motivated, and it is, undoubtedly, a driving force behind the concept of imperialism in this era. |
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==Criticism== |
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{{Expand section|date=July 2010}} |
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"Imperialism has been subject to moral censure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in international propaganda as a pejorative for expansionist and aggressive foreign policy."<ref name=IESS /> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Capitalism]] |
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* [[Colonialism]] |
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* [[Cultural imperialism]] |
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* [[Empire]] |
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* [[Feudalism]] |
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* [[Hegemony]] |
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* ''[[Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]]'' by [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]] |
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* [[John A. Hobson]] |
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* [[Leninism#Imperialism|Imperialism in Leninist theory]] |
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* [[List of empires]] |
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**[[List of largest empires]] |
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***[[American Empire]] |
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***[[British Empire]] |
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***[[Russian Empire]] |
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***[[French Empire]] |
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***[[Spanish Empire]] |
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***[[Portuguese Empire]] |
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***[[Dutch Empire]] |
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* [[Neocolonialism]] |
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* [[New Imperialism]] |
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* [[Oil imperialism]] |
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* [[Scientific imperialism]] |
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* [[Super-imperialism]] |
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* ''[[The Accumulation of Capital|The Accumulation of Capital: A Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperialism]]'' by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] |
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* [[Theories of New Imperialism]] |
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* [[Tropical geography]] |
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* [[Ultra-imperialism]] |
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* [[Uneven and combined development]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* [[Guy Ankerl]], ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and Western,'' Geneva, INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5. |
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* [[Robert Bickers]]/[[Christian Henriot]], ''New Frontiers: Imperialism's New Communities in East Asia, 1842-1953'', Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5604-7 |
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* [[Barbara Bush]], ''Imperialism and Postcolonialism (History: Concepts,Theories and Practice),'' Longmans, 2006, ISBN 0582505836 |
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* [[John Darwin]]'', After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400-2000,'' Penguin Books, 2008, ISBN 0141010223 |
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* [[Niall Ferguson]], ''Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World,'' Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0141007540 |
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* [[Michael Hardt]] and [[Toni Negri]], ''Empire,'' [[Harvard University Press]], 2000, ISBN 0-674-00671-2 |
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* [[E.J. Hobsbawm]], ''The Age of Empire, 1875–1914,'' Abacus Books, 1989, ISBN 0349105987 |
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* [[E. J. Hobsbawm]], ''On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy,'' Pantheon Books, 2008, ISBN 0375425373 |
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* [[J. A. Hobson]], ''Imperialism: A Study,'' Cosimo Classics, 2005, ISBN 1596052503 |
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* [[Michael Hudson]], ''Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance,'' Pluto Press, 2003, ISBN 0745319890 |
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* [[V. I. Lenin]], ''Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism,'' International Publishers, New York, 1997, ISBN 0717800989 |
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* [[Edward Said]], ''Culture and Imperialism,'' Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0099967502 |
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* [[Simon C. Smith]], ''British Imperialism 1750-1970,'' Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 052159930X |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/hobson/1902/imperialism/index.htm J.A Hobson, Imperialism a Study] 1902. |
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* [http://www.mises.org/story/2383 The Paradox of Imperialism] by [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]. November 2006. |
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* [http://www.polyarchy.org/documents/imperialism.html Imperialism] Quotations |
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* [http://www.panarchy.org/schumpeter/imperialism.html State, Imperialism and Capitalism] by Joseph Schumpeter |
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* [http://www.panarchy.org/taylor/imperialism.1952.html Economic Imperialism] by A.J.P.Taylor |
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* [http://www.bartelby.org/65/im/imperial.html Imperialism Entry in the Columbia Encyclopedia (Bartleby)] |
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*[http://www.polis.cam.ac.uk/contacts/staff/eperreausaussine/imperialism.pdf] Imperialism by Emile Perreau-Saussine |
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*[http://dostoevskiansmiles.blogspot.com/2008/10/nation-state-core-and-periphery-brief.html The Nation-State, Core and Periphery: A Brief sketch of Imperialism in the 20th century.] |
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*[http://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/volume12/winter/winter-004-PERCEPTION(mehmetakifokur)%5B4%5D.pdf Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61-93] |
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*[http://www.michaelparenti.org/Imperialism101.html Imperialism 101, Against Empire By Michael Parenti Published by City Lights Books, 1995, ISBN 0872862984, 9780872862982, 217 pages] |
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{{Marxist & Communist phraseology}} |
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{{Empires}} |
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[[Category:Economic theories]] |
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[[Category:History of colonialism]] |
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[[Category:Marxist theory]] |
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[[Category:Imperialism|*]] |
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[[Category:Political economy]] |
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[[Category:Political systems]] |
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[[Category:Political theories]] |
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[[ar:إمبريالية]] |
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[[ru:Империализм]] |
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[[scn:Mpirialismu]] |
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[[simple:Imperialism]] |
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[[ta:பேரரசுவாதம்]] |
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[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม]] |
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Revision as of 16:12, 8 September 2010
your a gay homo duh