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what is cartography
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cartography which also can be called biophlesos is the making of maps.more experienced scientists use the word 'biophlesos'.bioph means map and phlesos means making in greek.
{{Redirect|Mapmaker}}
{{Redirect|Cartographer|the album by [[E.S. Posthumus]]|Cartographer (album)}}

[[File:Mediterranean chart fourteenth century2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The oldest original cartographic artifact in the [[Library of Congress]]: a [[nautical chart]] of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Second quarter of the 14th century.]]

'''Cartography''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making [[map]]s (also can be called mapping). Combining science, [[aesthetics]], and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.

The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
*Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as [[Toponomy|toponyms]] or political boundaries.
*Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of [[map projection]]s.
*Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of [[Cartographic generalization|generalization]].
*Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
*Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of [[#Map design|map design]].

Modern cartography is closely integrated with geographic information science (GIScience) and constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of [[geographic information system]]s.

==History==
{{Main|History of cartography|List of cartographers}}
[[Image:TO map.gif|thumb|Copy (1475) of [[Isidore of Seville|St. Isidore's]] [[TO map]] of the world.]]

The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is not sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of [[Çatalhöyük]] (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük), has been dated to the late [[7th millennium BCE]].<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_5_20/ai_54432963 Findarticles.com] "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" by Robert Kunzig. Discover Magazine, May 1999.</ref><ref>[http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/195777 Cam.ac.uk] "A bird’s eye view - of a leopard’s spots. The Çatalhöyük ‘map’ and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory" by Stephanie Meece. Anatolian Studies, 56:1-16, 2006.</ref> Other known maps of the ancient world include the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective and an engraved map of the holy [[Babylonia]]n city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period ([[14th century BCE|14th]]{{ndash}} [[12th century BCE|12th centuries BCE]]).<ref>[http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html Uchicago.edu] The Nippur Expedition</ref> The oldest surviving world maps are the [[Babylonian world map]]s from the 9th century BCE.<ref name="Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert 2009 147">{{citation|title=Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies|author=Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2009|isbn=1405191465|page=147}}</ref> One shows [[Babylon]] on the [[Euphrates]], surrounded by a circular landmass showing [[Assyria]], [[Urartu]]<ref>http://www.jstor.org/pss/1151277 IMAGO MVNDI, Vol.48 pp.209</ref> and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" ([[Oceanus]]), with seven islands arranged around it.<ref>{{cite book|first=Irving|last=Finel|title=A join to the map of the world: A notable discover|year=1995|pages=26–27}}</ref> Another depicts Babylon as being further north from the center of the world.<ref name="Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert 2009 147"/>

The [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]] created maps, beginning at latest with [[Anaximander]] in the 6th century BC.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Cartography|url=http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_781534525/cartography_history_of.html|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQeQNdg|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In the [[2nd century]] AD, [[Ptolemy]] produced his [[treatise]] on cartography, [[Geographia]].<ref>J. L. Berggren, Alexander Jones; ''Ptolemy's Geography By Ptolemy'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2001 ISBN 0691092591</ref> This contained [[Ptolemy's world map]] - the world then known to Western society ''([[Ecumene]])''. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the [[List of Graeco-Roman geographers|Greek geographers]] into Arabic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Geography|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552030_3/geography.html|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQdtmEV|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

In [[ancient China]], geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the [[Qin (state)|State of Qin]], dated back to the 4th century BC, during the [[Warring States Period]]. In the book of the ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'', published in 1092 by the [[China|Chinese]] scientist [[Su Song]], a [[star map]] on the equidistant cylindrical projection.<ref name="Miyajima">Miyajima, Kazuhiko (1997). ''Projection Methods in Chinese, Korean and Japanese Star Maps'' from "Highlights of Astronomy" vol. 11B p. 714. Ed. J. Andersen. Norwell: Kluwer Academic Publishers.</ref><ref>Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 569.</ref> Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even prior to this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in [[printing|printed]] form.

Early forms of [[cartography of India]] included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian [[epic poetry]], for example, the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref name=Sircar1>Sircar 327</ref> Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the [[Pole star]], and other constellations of use.<ref name=Sircar3/> These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the [[Common Era]] for purposes of navigation.<ref name=Sircar3>Sircar 330</ref>

[[Mappa mundi]] is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the [[Middle Ages]]. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents (Woodward, p.&nbsp;286).

[[File:TabulaRogeriana upside-down.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'', drawn by [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] for [[Roger II of Sicily]] in 1154.]]

The [[Geography in medieval Islam|Arab geographer]], [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], produced his medieval atlas ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'' in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of [[Africa]], the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Far East]], gathered by [[Islamic economics in the world|Arab merchants]] and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.<ref name=Scott>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire'', pp. 461-2.</ref>

[[File:Europe As A Queen Sebastian Munster 1570.jpg|thumb|150px|''[[Europa regina]]'' in [[Sebastian Münster]]'s "''[[Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)|Cosmographia]]''", 1570.]]

In the [[Age of Exploration]], from the 15th century to the 17th century, [[Europe]]an cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new [[surveying]] techniques. The invention of the [[magnetic compass]], [[telescope]] and [[sextant]] enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, [[Martin Behaim]], a German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgtm.html Globes and Terrain Models -- Geography and Maps: An Illustrated Guide], Library of Congress</ref>

[[Johannes Werner]] refined and promoted the ''Werner [[map projection]]''. In 1507, [[Martin Waldseemüller]] produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (''[[Universalis Cosmographia]]'') bearing the first use of the name "America". [[Portugal|Portuguese]] cartographer, [[Diego Ribero]], was author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). [[Italy|Italian]] cartogapher [[Battista Agnese]] produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts.

Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the "Beaver Map", published in 1715 by [[Herman Moll]]. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by [[Nicolas de Fer]]. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by [[Louis Hennepin]], published in 1697, and [[François Du Creux]], in 1664. By the 18th century, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.<ref>"Map Imitation" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/002035-300-e.html?PHPSESSID=el7bd0vpd8cto0amsqqq5kaj22 Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada</ref>

==Technological changes==
[[Image:Fernão Vaz Dourado 1571-1.jpg|thumb|right|A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographer [[Fernão Vaz Dourado]] (c. 1520-c.1580). It belongs to the so-called ''plane chart'' model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were plane (Portuguese National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).]]
[[File:Structureforet.jpg|thumb|right|Mapping can be done with [[GPS]] and [[laser rangefinder]] directly in the field (for example by [[Field-Map]] technology). Real-time map construction improve productivity and quality of mapping. Image is showing mapping of forest structure (position of trees, dead wood and canopy).]]

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the [[compass]] and much later, [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.

Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]] and [[vernier scale|vernier]], allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon.

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|lithographic]] and [[photography|photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

Advances in electronic technology in the 20th century ushered in another revolution in cartography. Ready availability of [[Computer hardware|computers and peripherals]] such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also: [[digital raster graphic]].

These days most commercial-quality maps are made using [[software]] that falls into one of three main types: [[computer-aided design|CAD]], [[Geographic information system|GIS]] and specialized illustration [[software]]. Spatial information can be stored in a [[database]], from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive [[map]]s that can be manipulated digitally.

With the [[rugged computer|field rugged computers]], [[GPS]] and [[laser rangefinder]]s, it is possible to perform mapping directly in the terrain. The construction of the map in real time improve productivity and quality of the result. '''Real time mapping''' is done for example with [[Field-map]] technology.

==Map types==
===General vs thematic cartography===
[[Image:Orienteringskort bygholm 2005 detail.jpg|thumb|Small section of an orienteering map.]]
[[Image:Easter Island map-en.svg|thumb|Topographic map of [[Easter Island]].]]
[[Image:Maps-for-free Sierra Nevada.png|thumb|180px|Relief map [[Sierra Nevada]]]]

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:50,000 (replacing the older 1&nbsp;inch to 1 mile) "[[Ordnance Survey]]" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

[[Thematic map|Thematic cartography]] involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a [[Thematic_map#Dot|dot map]] showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.

An [[orienteering]] map combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. The most prominent thematic element is shading, that indicates degrees of difficulty of travel due to vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, merely classified by the difficulty ("fight") that it presents.

===Topographic vs topological===
A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the [[topography|topographic]] description of a place, including (especially in the 20th century) the use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation. [[Terrain]] or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see [[Cartographic relief depiction]]).

A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information. [[Harry Beck|Beck's]] [[Tube map|London Underground map]] is an iconic example. Though the most widely used map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality: It varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions haphazardly. The only topography on it is the [[River Thames]], letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river. That and the topology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space.<ref>Ovenden, Mark. "Transit Maps of the World". New York, New York: [[Penguin Books]], 2007. Page 22.</ref> Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose.<ref>Devlin, Keith. ''The Millennium Problems''. New York, New York: Basic Books, 2002. Pages 162-163.</ref>

==Map design==
{{See also|Map projection}}
[[Image:Livingston-Greenwich-map.jpg|thumb|right|Illustrated map.]]

=== Map purpose and informations' selection ===
[[Arthur H. Robinson]], an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."<ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, A.H. |title=Elements of Cartography |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1953 |id=ISBN}}</ref> Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs.

From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes".<ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, A.H. |title=Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography. |location=Chicago |publisher=The University of Chicago Press. |year=1982 |id=ISBN}}</ref> The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term ''percipient'' refers to the person receiving information and was coined by Robinson.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Alan MacEachren|MacEachren, A.M.]] |title=How Maps Work |location=New York |publisher=The Guilford Press |year=1995 |id=ISBN}}</ref> The principle of [[Figure-ground in map design|figure-ground]] refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user’s experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.

Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. [[Alan MacEachren]] explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp.&nbsp;9). An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp.&nbsp;93).

In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the [[human body]] to the [[virtual world]]s of [[cyberspace]]. Therefore there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by [[public transport]] organisations to guide [[passenger]]s, namely [[urban rail and metro maps]], many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by [[Harry Beck]] and [[George Dow]].

===Naming conventions===
Most maps use text to [[Labeling (map design)|label]] places and for such things as a map title, legend and other information. Maps are often made in specific languages, though names of places often differ between languages. So a map made in English may use the name ''Germany'' for that country, while a German map would use ''Deutschland'' and a French map ''Allemagne''. A word that describes a place, using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an [[exonym]].

In some cases the proper name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to [[Myanmar]], but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use ''Burma''. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of ''Saigon'' for [[Ho Chi Minh City]], ''Bangkok'' for [[Bangkok|Krung Thep]] and ''Ivory Coast'' for [[Côte d'Ivoire]].

Difficulties arise, when [[transliteration]] or [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] between [[writing system]]s is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as ''Russia'' for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration, the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] letter ''Р'' is traditionally written as ''R'' in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Systems exist for transliteration of [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the [[Pinyin]] phonetic transcription systems. Other systems were used in the past, such as [[Wade-Giles]], resulting in the city being spelled ''Beijing'' on newer English maps and ''Peking'' on older ones.

Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both ''Brussels'' and ''Bruxelles''. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages. [[British Columbia]] is also officially named ''la Colombie-Britannique''. English maps rarely show the French names outside of Quebec, which itself is spelled ''Québec'' in French.<ref>This section based on: {{cite encyclopedia|title=Transliteration Systems|encyclopedia=Illustrated Atlas of the World|publisher=[[Rand McNally]]|year=1992|id=ISBN 0-528-83492-4|pages=A16-A17}}</ref>

The study of placenames is called [[toponymy]], while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is [[etymology]].

In order to improve legibility or to aid the illiterate, some maps have been produced using pictograms to represent places. The iconic example of this practice is Lance Wyman's early plans for the [[Mexico City Metro]], on which stations were shown simply as stylized logos. Wyman also prototyped such a map for the [[Washington Metro]], though ultimately the idea was rejected. Other cities experimenting with such maps are [[Fukuoka]], [[Guadalajara]] and [[Monterrey]].<ref>[[Mark Ovenden|Ovenden, Mark]]. "Transit Maps of the World". New York, New York: Penguin Books, 2007. Pages 60, 131, 132, 135.</ref>

===Map symbology===
[[File:Southwest Ireland Thornton.jpg|thumb|250px|A map of the southwest coast of [[Ireland]] created in the early 18th century. Notice the north arrow at the bottom of the map. Also, colors are used in the map to distinguish different geographical areas.]]
The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to extract information and to learn from the map. Cartographic [[symbology]] has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map, known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements, while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), [[compass rose]] or north arrow, overview map, [[bar scale]], [[map projection|projection]] and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.

When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north, but this might not be the case.

Color, likewise, is equally important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time, even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This fact allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial, when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications.

Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents and to symbolize this data on a map, there are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties. Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. [[Choropleth map]]s portray data collection areas, such as counties or census tracts, with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration (Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005).

===Map generalization===
A good map has to provide a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or [[thematic map|themes]]) in the ''right place'' for the map [[scale (map)|scale]] used, against the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, which takes up space on the map medium and very likely will cause some other item of interest to be displaced. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a ''slightly'' incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e. the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map takes up more space ''on the ground''. A good example from the late 1980s was the [[Ordnance Survey]]'s first digital maps, where the ''absolute'' positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away from [[ground truth]], when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.

==Cartographic errors==
Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a "[[watermark]]" helping the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The latter often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled "[[trap streets]]".<ref>{{cite book | last = Monmonier | first = Mark | title = How to Lie with Maps | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 1996 | isbn = 0226534219 | page = 51 |ed=2nd.}}</ref> Other names and forms for this are [[paper townsite]]s, [[fictitious entry|fictitious entries]], and copyright [[Easter egg (media)|easter egg]]s.<ref>[http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Copyright_Easter_Eggs Openstreetmap.org Copyright Easter Eggs]</ref>

Another motive for deliberate errors is simply cartographic graffiti or prank: a mapmaker wishing to leave his or her mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the [[Rocky Mountains]]' [[continental divide]] that appeared on a [[Boulder County, Colorado]] map in the early 1970s. It is believed to be the work of drafts man Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discovered until two years later.

==See also==
{{Portal|Atlas}}
{{Main|Outline of cartography}}
{{Multicol|800}}
* [[Aerial photography]]
* [[Animated mapping]]
* [[British Cartographic Society]]
* [[Cartogram]]
* [[Cartographic generalization]]
* [[Cartographic propaganda]]
* [[Cartographic relief depiction]]
* [[Contour line]]
* [[Critical cartography]]
* [[Digital Cadastral DataBase]]
* [[Fantasy map]]
* [[Figure-ground in map design]]
{{Multicol-break}}
* [[Four color theorem]]
* [[Gazetteer]]
* [[Geocode]]
* [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS)
* [[Geoinformatics]]
* [[Geomatics]]
* [[Geomatics Engineering]]
* [[Geovisualization]]
* [[Isostasy]]
* [[Japanese map symbols]]
* [[List of cartographers]]
* [[Locator map]]
* [[Map collection]]
{{Multicol-break}}
* [[Map projection]]
* [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]
* [[OpenStreetMap]], a free project mapping the world's roads using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]
* [[Orthophoto]]
* [[Photogrammetry]]
* [[Pictorial maps]]
* [[Planetary cartography]]
* [[Point of Beginning]]
* [[Scribing (cartography)]]
* [[Sea level]]
* [[Terra incognita]]
<!-- The article titled ''[[great circle distance]]'' explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. -->
{{Multicol-end}}

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
;Map making
* {{cite book |author=MacEachren, A.M. |title=Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design |location=University Park |publisher=The Pennsylvania State University |year=1994 |id=ISBN}}
* {{citebook|author= Bender, B. |year= 1999 |title= Subverting the Western Gaze: mapping alternative worlds |publisher= The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping your landscape (eds) P.J. Ucko & R. Layton. London: Routledge}}
* {{cite book |author=Monmonier, Mark |title=Mapping It Out |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |id=ISBN}}
* ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: ''Capabilities and Trends''. Redlands, CA. White Paper
* Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. ''American Planning Association''. pp.&nbsp;4–5
* Kent, A.J. 2005. "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal 42(2) pp.&nbsp;182–188
* {{cite book |author=Kraak, Menno-Jan and Ormeling, Ferjan |title=Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2002 |isbn=0-130-88890-7}}
* Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. ''Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow''. MT. Hood, Oregon.
* Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. ''Cartographic Journal'' 12, no. 2:94-108
* {{cite book |author=Peterson, Michael P. |title=Interactive and Animated Cartography |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1995 |isbn=978-0130791047}}
* {{cite book |author=Slocum, T. |title=Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2003 |isbn=0-130-35123-7}}

;History
* {{citebook|url=http://www.amazon.com/Mapping-World-Illustrated-History-Cartography/dp/0792265254/ref=pd_sim_b_4|title=Mapping the World: An Illustrated History of Cartography|author=Ralph E Ehrenberg|publisher=National Geographic|date=2005, Oct. 11|pages=256|ISBN-10=# 0792265254|ISBN-13 = 978-0792265252}}
* {{cite book |author=[[John Brian Harley|J. B. Harley]] and [[David Woodward]] (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-226-31633-5}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992|isbn=0-226-31635-1}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1994|isbn=0-226-31637-8}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis]|location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1998|isbn=0-226-90728-7}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 3 (in press, 2005): Cartography in the European Renaissance. |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2005|isbn=0-226-90733-3}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 4 (edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward): Cartography in the European Enlightenment. |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1987|isbn=0-226-31633-5}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |id=ISBN}}
* {{cite book |author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) |title=The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |id=ISBN}}
* {{citebook|author=Belyea, B. |year= 1992 |title= Amerindian Maps: the Explorer as Translator |publisher=''Journal of Historical Geography'' 18, no.3 |pages = 267–277}}

;Meanings
* {{cite book |author=Monmonier, Mark |title=How to Lie with Maps |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-226-53421-9}}
* Wood, Denis, ''The Power of Maps'', New York/London, The Guilford Press, 1992

;Others (still to categorize)
<!-- still to categorize -->
* {{cite book |author=Pickles, John |title=A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-14497-3}}
* {{cite book |author=[[John Noble Wilford|Wilford, John Noble]] |title=The Mapmakers |publisher=Vintage Books |year=2000 |isbn=0-375-70850-2}}
* "Map Imitations" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|commons=Historical maps}}
* [http://www.icaci.org/ International Cartographic Association (ICA)], the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
* [http://www.cartogis.org/ Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), USA] The CaGIS(ociety)promotes research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies.
* [http://www.maps-for-free.com Maps-For-Free.com] Free global relief maps
* [http://www.ncc.org.ir/ National Cartographic Center of Iran (NCC), Tehran]
* [http://www.cartography.org.uk/ British Cartographic Society]
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/maphist/mappinghistory.html Mapping History] - a learning resource from the British Library
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide], by the staff of the US [[Library of Congress]].
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html The history of cartography] at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
* [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html Antique Maps] by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers
* [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
* [http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Cartographers] supports the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
* [http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography], Newberry Library
* [http://www.upct.org/ UPCT] : project aimed at creating a world map (a French map to begin) with voluntaries using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]
* [http://openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] : project aimed squarely at creating and providing free geographic data of the world.
* [http://www.gitta.info GITTA] - A webbased open content eLearning course with basic and intermediate cartography lessons based on the [[eLML]] XML framework.
* [http://www.carto.net/ cartographers on the net] SVG, scalable vector graphics: tutorials, examples, widgets and libraries
See [[Maps#External links|Maps]] for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below.
* [http://www.maphistory.info/index.html Map history] has extensive links to online map resources, including several large [http://www.maphistory.info/webimages.html collections of images online] and articles on the [http://www.maphistory.info/webtexts.html history of cartography].
* [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php Odden's fascinating world of maps and mapping] has a huge database of links on maps and cartography (under "Literature").
* [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm Online map catalogs in North America and Europe] lists some good places to search for online maps.
* [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
* [http://maps.grida.no UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library], web-site from the UN Environment Programme with hundreds of examples of thematic maps
* [http://compsoc.bandungfe.net/kartografi-indonesia/ Kartografi-Indonesia] A website displaying cartograms of various Indonesian-related data made by the Dept. Computational Sociology of Bandung Fe Institute.
* [http://islamic-cartography.blogspot.com/ IslamicCartography] A weblog on Islamic cartography by Tarek Kahlaoui a PhD student in the University of Pennsylvania
* [http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/mappingourworld/ Mapping Our World] Oxfam's interactive site to help pupils develop geography skills through activities all about maps, globes and how we view the world
* [http://www.platial.com/ Platial, The People's Atlas] User-created maps

{{atlas}}
{{Geography topics}}
{{Visualization}}

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[[Category:Cartography| ]]
[[Category:Branches of geography]]
[[Category:Visualization (graphic)]]
[[Category:Atlas| Cartography]]

[[af:Kartografie]]
[[ar:علم الخرائط]]
[[ast:Cartografía]]
[[az:Kartoqrafiya]]
[[ba:Картография]]
[[bg:Картография]]
[[ca:Cartografia]]
[[cs:Kartografie]]
[[cy:Cartograffeg]]
[[da:Kartografi]]
[[de:Kartografie]]
[[et:Kartograafia]]
[[el:Χαρτογραφία]]
[[es:Cartografía]]
[[eo:Kartografio]]
[[eu:Kartografia]]
[[fa:نقشه‌نگاری]]
[[fr:Cartographie]]
[[gl:Cartografía]]
[[ko:지도학]]
[[hr:Kartografija]]
[[io:Kartografio]]
[[id:Kartografi]]
[[ia:Cartographia]]
[[is:Kortagerð]]
[[it:Cartografia]]
[[he:קרטוגרפיה]]
[[ka:კარტოგრაფია]]
[[la:Cartographia]]
[[lv:Kartogrāfija]]
[[lb:Kartographie]]
[[lt:Kartografija]]
[[li:Cartografie]]
[[hu:Térképészet]]
[[ms:Kartografi]]
[[mn:Зурагзүй]]
[[nl:Cartografie]]
[[ja:地図学]]
[[no:Kartografi]]
[[nn:Kartografi]]
[[oc:Cartografia]]
[[pl:Kartografia]]
[[pt:Cartografia]]
[[ro:Cartografie]]
[[ru:Картография]]
[[stq:Kartographie]]
[[sq:Hartografia]]
[[scn:Cartugrafìa]]
[[si:සිතියම් විද්‍යාව]]
[[simple:Cartography]]
[[sk:Kartografia]]
[[sl:Kartografija]]
[[sr:Картографија]]
[[fi:Kartografia]]
[[sv:Kartografi]]
[[tl:Kartograpiya]]
[[ta:நிலப்படவரைவியல்]]
[[tr:Kartografya]]
[[uk:Картографія]]
[[vi:Bản đồ học]]
[[zh:地图学]]

Revision as of 01:01, 8 October 2010

cartography which also can be called biophlesos is the making of maps.more experienced scientists use the word 'biophlesos'.bioph means map and phlesos means making in greek.
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