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'''Halloween''' (or '''Hallowe'en''') is an annual [[holiday]] observed on October 31, primarily in [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and the [[United States]]. It has roots in the [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic]] festival of [[Samhain]] and the Christian holiday [[All Saints' Day]], but is today largely a secular celebration.
'''Halloween''' (or '''Hallowe'en''') is an annual [[holiday]] observed on October 31, primarily in [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. It has roots in the [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic]] festival of [[Samhain]] and the Christian holiday [[All Saints' Day]], but is today largely a secular celebration.


Common Halloween activities include [[trick-or-treating]], wearing [[Halloween costume|costumes]] and attending [[Costume party|costume parties]], carving [[jack-o'-lantern]]s, [[Ghost|ghost tours]], [[bonfire]]s, [[apple bobbing]], visiting [[haunted attraction]]s, committing [[prank]]s, telling [[ghost story|ghost stories]] or other frightening tales, and watching [[horror film]]s.
Common Halloween activities include [[trick-or-treating]], wearing [[Halloween costume|costumes]] and attending [[Costume party|costume parties]], carving [[jack-o'-lantern]]s, [[Ghost|ghost tours]], [[bonfire]]s, [[apple bobbing]], visiting [[haunted attraction]]s, committing [[prank]]s, telling [[ghost story|ghost stories]] or other frightening tales, and watching [[horror film]]s.

Revision as of 22:31, 31 October 2010

For other uses, see Halloween (disambiguation).

Halloween
A Jack-o'-lantern
Also calledAll Hallows’ Eve
All Saints’ Eve
Observed byIreland, Scotland, Canada, United States and other places
TypePagan
ObservancesCostume parties, trick-or-treating in costumes, carving pumpkins, ghost tours, haunted attractions, bonfires, divination, apple bobbing, fireworks displays
DateOctober 31
Related toSamhain, All Saints’ Day

Halloween (or Hallowe'en) is an annual holiday observed on October 31, primarily in Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States. It has roots in the Celtic festival of Samhain and the Christian holiday All Saints' Day, but is today largely a secular celebration.

Common Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, wearing costumes and attending costume parties, carving jack-o'-lanterns, ghost tours, bonfires, apple bobbing, visiting haunted attractions, committing pranks, telling ghost stories or other frightening tales, and watching horror films.

History

Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes that while "some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of the dead called Parentalia, it is more typically linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain, whose original spelling was Samuin (pronounced sow-an or sow-in)".[1] The name is derived from Old Irish and means roughly "summer's end".[1] A similar festival was held by the ancient Britons and is known as Calan Gaeaf (pronounced Kálan Gái av).

Snap-Apple Night by Daniel Maclise showing a Halloween party in Blarney, Ireland, in 1832. The young children on the right bob for apples. A couple in the center play a variant, which involves retrieving an apple hanging from a string. The couples at left play divination games.

The festival of Samhain celebrates the end of the "lighter half" of the year and beginning of the "darker half", and is sometimes[2] regarded as the "Celtic New Year".[3]

The ancient Celts believed that the border between this world and the Otherworld became thin on Samhain, allowing spirits (both harmless and harmful) to pass through. The family's ancestors were honoured and invited home while harmful spirits were warded off. It is believed that the need to ward off harmful spirits led to the wearing of costumes and masks. Their purpose was to disguise oneself as a harmful spirit and thus avoid harm. In Scotland the spirits were impersonated by young men dressed in white with masked, veiled or blackened faces.[4][5] Samhain was also a time to take stock of food supplies and slaughter livestock for winter stores. Bonfires played a large part in the festivities. All other fires were doused and each home lit their hearth from the bonfire. The bones of slaughtered livestock were cast into its flames.[6] Sometimes two bonfires would be built side-by-side, and people and their livestock would walk between them as a cleansing ritual.

Another common practice was divination, which often involved the use of food and drink.

The name 'Halloween' and many of its present-day traditions derive from the Old English era.[7][8][9]

Origin of name

The word Halloween is first attested in the 16th century and represents a Scottish variant of the fuller All-Hallows-Even ("evening"), that is, the night before All Hallows Day. Up through the early 20th century,[citation needed] the spelling "Hallowe'en" was frequently used, eliding the "v" and shortening the word. Although the phrase All Hallows is found in Old English (ealra hālgena mæssedæg, mass-day of all saints), All-Hallows-Even is itself not attested until 1556.[10]

Symbols

Jack-o'-lanterns in Kobe, Japan

Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time encompassing customs of medieval holy days as well as contemporary cultures. The souling practice of commemorating the souls in purgatory with candle lanterns carved from turnips, became adapted into the making of jack-o'-lanterns.[11] In traditional Celtic Halloween festivals, large turnips were hollowed out, carved with faces, and placed in windows to ward off evil spirits.[5] The carving of pumpkins is associated with Halloween in North America where pumpkins are both readily available and much larger – making them easier to carve than turnips.[12] Many families that celebrate Halloween carve a pumpkin into a frightening or comical face and place it on their doorstep after dark. The American tradition of carving pumpkins preceded the Great Famine period of Irish immigration[13] and was originally associated with harvest time in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to-late 19th century.[14][15]

The imagery of Halloween is derived from many sources, including national customs, works of Gothic and horror literature (such as the novels Frankenstein and Dracula), and classic horror films (such as Frankenstein and The Mummy).[16] Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween.

Halloween imagery includes themes of death, evil, the occult, magic, or mythical monsters.[17] Traditional characters include ghosts, witches, skeletons, vampires, werewolves, demons, bats, spiders, and black cats.[18] Black and orange are the traditional Halloween colors and represent the darkness of night and the color of bonfires, autumn leaves, and jack-o'-lanterns.[18]

Trick-or-treating and guising

Main article: Trick-or-treating
Trick-or-treating in Sweden

Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat?" The word "trick" refers to a (mostly idle) "threat" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. In some parts of Scotland children still go guising. In this custom the child performs some sort of trick, i.e. sings a song or tells a ghost story, to earn their treats.

The practice of dressing up in costumes and begging door to door for treats on holidays dates back to the Middle Ages and includes Christmas wassailing. Trick-or-treating resembles the late medieval practice of souling, when poor folk would go door to door on Hallowmas (November 1), receiving food in return for prayers for the dead on All Souls Day (November 2). It originated in Ireland and Britain,[19] although similar practices for the souls of the dead were found as far south as Italy.[20] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering or whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas."[21] The custom of wearing costumes and masks at Halloween goes back to Celtic traditions of attempting to copy the evil spirits or placate them, in Scotland for instance where the dead were impersonated by young men with masked, veiled or blackened faces, dressed in white.[22][5]

American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book length history of the holiday in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America";

The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch party, using Burn's poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now.[23]

Kelley lived in Lynn, Massachusetts, a town with 4,500 Irish immigrants, 1,900 English immigrants, and 700 Scottish immigrants in 1920.[24] In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Hallowe'en customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries".[25]

At the time of substantial transatlantic Scottish and Irish immigration that brought the holiday to North America in the 19th century, Halloween in Scotland and Ireland had a strong tradition of "guising" — Scottish and Irish children disguised in costumes going from door to door requesting food or coins.[26]

The earliest known reference to ritual begging on Halloween in English speaking North America occurs in 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario reported that it was normal for the smaller children to go street "guising" (see below) on Halloween between 6 and 7 p.m., visiting shops and neighbors to be rewarded with nuts and candies for their rhymes and songs.[27] Another isolated reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920.[28]

The earliest known use in print of the term "trick or treat" appears in 1927, from Blackie, Alberta, Canada:

Hallowe’en provided an opportunity for real strenuous fun. No real damage was done except to the temper of some who had to hunt for wagon wheels, gates, wagons, barrels, etc., much of which decorated the front street. The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding edible plunder by the word “trick or treat” to which the inmates gladly responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing.[29]

The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but do not depict trick-or-treating.[30] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom [of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them".[31] Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first U.S. appearances of the term in 1934,[32] and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939.[33]

Costumes

Main article: Halloween costume
People dressing in Halloween Costumes in Dublin.

Halloween costumes are traditionally modeled after monsters such as ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. Over time, the costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses.

Dressing up in costumes and going "guising" was prevalent in Scotland and Ireland at Halloween by the 19th century.[26] Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children. The first mass-produced Halloween costumes appeared in stores in the 1930s when trick-or-treating was becoming popular in the United States.

What sets Halloween costumes apart from costumes for other celebrations or days of dressing up is that they are often designed to imitate supernatural and scary beings. Costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as vampires, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils, or in more recent years such science fiction-inspired characters as aliens and superheroes. There are also costumes of pop culture figures like presidents, athletes, celebrities, or film, television, and cartoon characters. Another popular trend is for women (and in some cases, men) to wear sexy or revealing costumes.[34]

Halloween costume parties generally fall on, or around, 31 October, often falling on the Friday or Saturday prior to Halloween

Games and other activities

In this Halloween greeting card from 1904, divination is depicted: the young woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse of the face of her future husband.

There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. One common game is dunking or apple bobbing, in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use their teeth to remove an apple from the basin.[35] A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into an apple.[36] Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a very sticky face.

Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of divination. A traditional Scottish form of divining one's future spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over one's shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's name.[37] Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards[38] from the late 19th century and early 20th century.

The telling of ghost stories and viewing of horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series and Halloween-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before the holiday, while new horror films are often released theatrically before the holiday to take advantage of the atmosphere.

Haunted attractions

Main article: Haunted attraction
Humorous tombstones in front of a house in northern California.

Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses. Origins of these paid scare venues are difficult to pinpoint, but it is generally accepted that they were first commonly used by the Junior Chamber International (Jaycees) for fundraising.[39] They include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides,[40] and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. Haunted attractions in the United States bring in an estimate $300–500 million each year, and draw some 400,000 customers, although trends suggest a peak in 2005.[39] This increase in interest has led to more highly technical special effects and costuming that is comparable with that in Hollywood films.[41]

The attractions are held in various venues. Events held in older, slightly dilapidated buildings utilize the natural atmosphere with strategically placed special effects, lights and props, while others will construct elaborate scenery and contain amusement park quality mechanical figures and illusions. On the same token, actors (known as "scare-actors") in these dark attractions might be dressed either in masks or greasepaints and basic costumes, but those with higher budgets often opt to dress their characters in customized outfits and elaborate make-up. Another difference to be found is that some dark attractions present their event as following a storyline (i.e., the tale of madness and murder that lead to the building being haunted), while others present a random order of scenes and tableaux designed to shock and startle the patrons. Visitors to these dark attractions may be escorted through by tour guides (possibly in part to help deter potential encounters between actors and patrons who were suddenly startled or unruly). Other attractions may be run as self-guided events, letting the patrons follow a set path and thus get more "up close and personal" with the ghouls and monsters therein. More permanent venues may have a mechanized system for transporting patrons through the attraction.

Haunted hayride

Haunted hayrides are haunted attractions set in farmers' fields, primarily across the United States. In this sort of attraction, groups of patrons sit in a wagon filled with hay and are pulled by a tractor through the field. There is no definite record of where the first one was held. As popularity increased entrepreneurs began to view the haunted hayride as a legitimate family attraction, and this has made it an annual Halloween event.

Haunted places

In the UK there are a number of haunted places that see a rise in visitors during events such as Halloween. Pluckley, the most haunted village in England is just one example of a haunted place. It is rumoured that The London Tombs are also haunted after a collection of human remains were found there during renovation in 2008.

Haunted trail

A haunted trail or spooky trail is usually held at night in a public park, garden, or preserve, although it may be held at any outdoor venue. They are often included as one of the attractions at a Halloween carnival. In most instances, a trail or walkway is used. When said trail or walkway does not exist, one is cordoned off through use of ropes or barriers. Along this trail are displays or exhibits representing cemeteries, crime scenes, and the like. Also along this trail are human subjects dressed up to resemble mummies, vampires, werewolves, ghosts, zombies and various other scary characters. These actors frequently jump out at guests along the trail, or they may walk back and forth in silence and make threatening gestures with axes, chainsaws or other sharp garden equipment. Some haunted trails may have a maze near the end. A variant of the haunted trail that has gained popularity over the past few years has been the cornfield maze, in which patrons follow a path cut through the dense foliage of a cornfield and encounter various creatures and scenes within. Some of these mazes can be quite large and cover several acres.

Haunted house

An American Halloween practice is to decorate a house, yard, or garage and open it to other members of the public. For some, the decorations are something created specifically for trick-or-treating and are in place for one night only. For others, the decorations are done more in the tradition of Christmas decor and appear a month or so before the actual holiday.

Common motifs for Halloween are settings resembling a cemetery, a haunted house, a hospital, or a specific monster-driven theme built around famous creatures or characters.

Typical elements of decoration include jack-o'-lanterns, fake spiders and cobwebs, and artificial gravestones and coffins. Coffins can be built to contain bodies or skeletons, and are sometimes rigged with animatronic equipment and motion detectors so that they will spring open in reaction to passers-by. Eerie music and sound effects are often played over loudspeakers to add to the atmosphere. Haunts can also be given a more "professional" look, now that such items as fog machines and strobe lights have become available for more affordable prices at discount retailers. Some haunted houses issue flashlights with dying batteries to attendees to enhance the feeling of unease.

Foods

Candy apple

Because the holiday comes in the wake of the annual apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts.

At one time, candy apples were commonly given to children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples.[42] While there is evidence of such incidents,[43] they are quite rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of the mass media. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free X-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy.[44]

One custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Template:Lang-gle), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin and other charms are placed before baking. It is said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.

List of foods associated with the holiday:

Around the world

Main article: Halloween around the world

Halloween is not celebrated in all countries and regions of the world, and among those that do the traditions and importance of the celebration vary significantly. Celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations. This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as South America, Australia,[45] Europe, to Japan under the auspices of the Japanese Biscuit Association, and other parts of East Asia.[46]

Religious perspectives

See also: All Saints and Samhain

Christianity

Christian attitudes towards Halloween are quite diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions of All Saints’ Day,[47][48] while some other Protestants celebrate the holiday as Reformation Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation.[49][50] Father Gabriele Amorth, a Vatican-appointed exorcist in Rome, has said, "if English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that."[51] In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on the holiday.[52] Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy.

Many Christians ascribe no negative significance to Halloween, treating it as a purely secular holiday devoted to celebrating "imaginary spooks" and handing out candy. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.[53] In the Roman Catholic Church Halloween is viewed as having a Christian connection,[54] and Halloween celebrations are common in Catholic parochial schools throughout North America and in Ireland.

Other Christians feel concerned about Halloween, and reject the holiday because they feel it trivializes — or celebrates - paganism, the occult, or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with their beliefs.[55] A response among some fundamentalist and conservative evangelical churches in recent years has been the use of 'Hell houses', themed pamphlets, or comic-style tracts such as those created by Jack T. Chick in order to make use of Halloween's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism.[52] Some consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith[56] because of its origin as a pagan "Festival of the Dead". For example, Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate Halloween because they believe anything that originated from a pagan holiday should not be celebrated by true Christians.[57]

Paganism

Celtic Neo-Pagans consider the season a holy time of year.[58] Celtic Reconstructionists, and others who maintain ancestral customs, make offerings to the gods and the ancestors.[58] Some Wiccans feel that the tradition is offensive to Wiccan practitioners for promoting stereotypical caricatures of "wicked witches".[59] Neo-Pagans most often celebrate this day as Samhain and observe the end of the harvest season.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Rogers, Nicholas (2002). "Samhain and the Celtic Origins of Halloween". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, pp.11–21. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516896-8.
  2. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-288045-4
  3. ^ Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs, pp.190–232. Dublin: Mercier Press. ISBN 1-85635-093-2
  4. ^ Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005). The Gaelic Otherworld. Black, Ronald (Ed.), pp.559–62. Edinburgh: Birlinn. ISBN 1-84158-207-7.
  5. ^ a b c Arnold, Bettina (2001-10-31). "Bettina Arnold – Halloween Lecture: Halloween Customs in the Celtic World". Halloween Inaugural Celebration. University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee: Center for Celtic Studies. Retrieved 2007-10-16.
  6. ^ O'Driscoll, Robert (ed.) (1981) The Celtic Consciousness New York, Braziller ISBN 0-8076-1136-0 pp.197–216: Ross, Anne "Material Culture, Myth and Folk Memory" (on modern survivals); pp.217–242: Danaher, Kevin "Irish Folk Tradition and the Celtic Calendar" (on specific customs and rituals)
  7. ^ Salomonsen, Jone (2002). Enchanted Feminism: Ritual, Gender and Divinity Among the Reclaiming Witches of San Francisco, p.190. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22392-X.
  8. ^ Ellwood, Robert S; McGraw, Barabara A. (1999). Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in The World Religions, p. 31. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-010735-2
  9. ^ Christian, Roy (1967). Old English Customs, pp. 40, 110. Hastings House.
  10. ^ Simpson, John (1989). Oxford English Dictionary (second ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. OCLC 17648714. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2002). Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, pp.29, 57. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516896-8.
  12. ^ Skal, David J. (2002). Death Makes a Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween, p.34. New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 1-58234-230-X.
  13. ^ Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Great Carbuncle," in "Twice-Told Tales", 1837: Hide it [the great carbuncle] under thy cloak, say'st thou? Why, it will gleam through the holes, and make thee look like a jack-o'-lantern!
  14. ^ As late as 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities. "The Day We Celebrate: Thanksgiving Treated Gastronomically and Socially," The New York Times, November 24, 1895, p. 27. "Odd Ornaments for Table," The New York Times, October 21, 1900, p. 12.
  15. ^ Skal, David J. (2002). Death Makes a Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween. New York: Bloomsbury. p. 32. ISBN 1-58234-230-X. The earliest reference to associate carved vegetable lanterns with Halloween in Britain is Ruth Edna Kelley, The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), Chapter 8, which mentions turnip lanterns in Scotland.
  16. ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2002). "Halloween Goes to Hollywood". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, pp. 103–124. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516896-8.
  17. ^ Simpson, Jacqueline All Saints' Day in Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, Howarth, G and Leeman, O (2001)London Routledge ISBN 0-415-18825-3, p.14 Halloween is closely associated in folklore with death and the supernatural.
  18. ^ a b Hal Siemer, "Spooky Halloween: A Celebration of the Dark", QuestMagazine.com, October 1, 2006.
  19. ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2002). Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 0-19-514691-3.
  20. ^ "Ask Anne", Washington Post, Nov. 21, 1948, p. S11.
  21. ^ Act 2, Scene 1.
  22. ^ Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 1-84158-207-7 pp.559-62
  23. ^ Ruth Edna Kelley, The Book of Hallowe'en, Boston: Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Co., 1919, chapter 15, p.127. "Hallowe'en in America."
  24. ^ U.S. Census, January 1, 1920, State of Massachusetts, City of Lynn.
  25. ^ Kelley, Ruth Edna. http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/boh/boh17.htm Hallowe'en in America
  26. ^ a b Rogers, Nicholas. (2002) "Festive Rights:Halloween in the British Isles". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. p.48. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514691-3
  27. ^ Rogers, Nicholas. (2002) "Coming Over:Halloween in North America". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. p.76. Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-514691-3
  28. ^ Theo. E. Wright, "A Halloween Story," St. Nicholas, October 1915, p. 1144. Mae McGuire Telford, "What Shall We Do Halloween?" Ladies Home Journal, October 1920, p. 135.
  29. ^ "'Trick or Treat' Is Demand," Herald (Lethbridge, Alberta), November 4, 1927, p. 5, dateline Blackie, Alberta, Nov. 3.
  30. ^ For examples, see the websites Postcard & Greeting Card Museum: Halloween Gallery, Antique Hallowe'en Postcards, Vintage Halloween Postcards, and Morticia's Morgue Antique Halloween Postcards.
  31. ^ E-mail from Louise and Gary Carpentier, 29 May 2007, editors of Halloween Postcards Catalog (CD-ROM), G & L Postcards.
  32. ^ "Halloween Pranks Keep Police on Hop," Oregon Journal (Portland, Oregon), November 1, 1934:

    Other young goblins and ghosts, employing modern shakedown methods, successfully worked the "trick or treat" system in all parts of the city.

    "The Gangsters of Tomorrow", The Helena Independent (Helena, Montana), November 2, 1934, p. 4:

    Pretty Boy John Doe rang the door bells and his gang waited his signal. It was his plan to proceed cautiously at first and give a citizen every opportunity to comply with his demands before pulling any rough stuff. "Madam, we are here for the usual purpose, 'trick or treat.'" This is the old demand of the little people who go out to have some innocent fun. Many women have some apples, cookies or doughnuts for them, but they call rather early and the "treat" is given out gladly.

    The Chicago Tribune also mentioned door-to-door begging in Aurora, Illinois on Halloween in 1934, although not by the term "trick-or-treating." "Front Views and Profiles" (column), Chicago Tribune, Nov. 3, 1934, p. 17.
  33. ^ Doris Hudson Moss, "A Victim of the Window-Soaping Brigade?" The American Home, November 1939, p. 48. Moss was a California-based writer.
  34. ^ Good Girls Go Bad, for a Day
  35. ^ "Kids-Fun-And-Games.com". Kids-Fun-And-Games.com. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  36. ^ "Halloween Party Game Ideas" Kidzworld.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  37. ^ McNeill, F. Marian (1961, 1990) The Silver Bough, Vol. 3. William MacLellan, Glasgow ISBN 0-948474-04-1 pp.11–46
  38. ^ "Vintage Halloween Cards". Vintage Holiday Crafts. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  39. ^ a b Associated Press (2005-10-30). "Haunted house business getting frightfully hard". MSNBC.com. MSNBC. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
  40. ^ Greg Ryan (2008-09-17). "A Model of Mayhem". Hudson Valley Magazine. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
  41. ^ Wilson, Craig (2006-10-12). "Haunted houses get really scary". USAToday.com.
  42. ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2002). "Razor in the Apple: Struggle for Safe and Sane Halloween, c. 1920–1990," Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, pp. 78–102. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516896-8.
  43. ^ "Urban Legends Reference Pages: Pins and Needles in Halloween Candy". Snopes.com. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
  44. ^ Nixon, Robin (October 28 2010). "Poisoned Halloween Candy: Trick, Treat or Myth? - Yahoo! News". Yahoo!. Retrieved 31 October 2010. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ^ Template:Cite article
  46. ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2002). Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, p.164. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516896-8.
  47. ^ "Bishop Challenges Supermarkets to Lighten up Halloween". The Church of England. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  48. ^ "Halloween and All Saints Day". newadvent.org. n.d. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
  49. ^ "Reformation Day". Retrieved 2009-10-22.
  50. ^ "Reformation Day: What, Why, and Resources for Worship". The General Board of Discipleship of The United Methodist Church. 2005-10-21. Archived from the original on 2007-02-23. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
  51. ^ Gyles Brandreth, "The Devil is gaining ground" The Sunday Telegraph (London), March 11, 2000.
  52. ^ a b "Salem 'Saint Fest' restores Christian message to Halloween". www.rcab.org. n.d. Archived from the original on 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
  53. ^ "Feast of Samhain/Celtic New Year/Celebration of All Celtic Saints November 1". All Saints Parish. n.d. Retrieved 2006-11-22.
  54. ^ Halloween’s Christian Roots AmericanCatholic.org. Retrieved on October 24, 2007.
  55. ^ Halloween: Satan's New Year (2006) by Billye Dymally, Halloween: Counterfeit Holy Day (2005) by Kele Gershom, and Halloween: What's a Christian to Do? (1998) by Steve Russo. An opposing viewpoint is found in The Magic Eightball Test: A Christian Defense of Halloween and All Things Spooky (2006) by Lint Hatcher.
  56. ^ ""Trick?" or "Treat?"—Unmasking Halloween". The Restored Church of God. n.d. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
  57. ^ "Not Everyone Celebrates Halloween, by Samantha Robinson". Daily Egyptian at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, IL. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  58. ^ a b "A to Z of Halloween". The Limerick Leader. 2009-10-29. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
  59. ^ Reece, Kevin (2004-10-24). "School District Bans Halloween". KOMO News. Retrieved 2006-09-14.

Further reading

  • Diane C. Arkins, Halloween: Romantic Art and Customs of Yesteryear, Pelican Publishing Company (2000). 96 pages. ISBN 1-56554-712-8
  • Diane C. Arkins, Halloween Merrymaking: An Illustrated Celebration Of Fun, Food, And Frolics From Halloweens Past, Pelican Publishing Company (2004). 112 pages. ISBN 1-58980-113-X
  • Lesley Bannatyne, Halloween: An American Holiday, An American History, Facts on File (1990, Pelican Publishing Company, 1998). 180 pages. ISBN 1-56554-346-7
  • Lesley Bannatyne, A Halloween Reader. Stories, Poems and Plays from Halloweens Past, Pelican Publishing Company (2004). 272 pages. ISBN 1-58980-176-8
  • Phyllis Galembo, Dressed for Thrills: 100 Years of Halloween Costumes and Masquerade, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (2002). 128 pages. ISBN 0-81093-291-1
  • Ruth Edna Kelley, The Book of Hallowe'en (1919). Free download at Project Gutenberg.
  • Jean Markale, The Pagan Mysteries of Halloween: Celebrating the Dark Half of the Year (translation of Halloween, histoire et traditions), Inner Traditions (2001). 160 pages. ISBN 0-89281-900-6
  • Lisa Morton, The Halloween Encyclopedia, McFarland & Company (2003). 240 pages. ISBN 0-78641-524-X
  • Nicholas Rogers, Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, Oxford University Press, USA (2002). ISBN 0-19514-691-3
  • Jack Santino (ed.), Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life, University of Tennessee Press (1994). 280 pages. ISBN 0-87049-813-4
  • Ben Truwe, The Halloween Catalog Collection: 55 catalogs from the golden age of Halloween. Medford, Oregon: Talky Tina Press (2003). ISBN 0-9703448-5-6.
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