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{{this|conservatism as a political and social philosophy|Conservatism (disambiguation)}}
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'''Conservatism''' ({{lang-la|conservare}}, "to preserve")<ref>Davies, N, 'Europe: A History', (Pimlico:London,1997) p.812</ref> is a political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and supports, at the most, minimal and gradual change in society. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism and seek a return to the way things were.<ref>Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, "Conservatism", ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', Third Edition, "Sometimes it (conservatism) has been outright opposition, based on an existing model of society that is considered right for all time. It can take a 'reactionary' form, harking back to, and attempting to reconstruct, forms of society which existed in an earlier period.", Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978019205165.</ref><ref name="brit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/133435/conservatism|title=Conservatism (political philosophy)|publisher=Britannica.com}} Retrieved on 1&nbsp;November 2009.</ref> The first established use of the term in a political context was by [[François-René de Chateaubriand]] in 1819, following the [[French Revolution]].<ref>[http://hnn.us/articles/43075.html The Scary Echo of the Intolerance of the French Revolution in America Today]</ref> The term has since been used to describe a wide range of views.

[[Seymour Martin Lipset]] wrote that liberals and conservatives "typically do not take alternative positions on issues of equality and freedom. Instead, each side appeals to one or the other core values, as liberals stress egalitarianism‘s primacy and the social injustice that flows from unfettered individualism, while conservatives enshrine individual freedom and the social need for mobility and achievement as values "endangered" by the collectivism inherent in liberal nostrums."<ref>http://www.ppionline.org/documents/equality_lipset.pdf</ref>

Political science often credits the Irish politician [[Edmund Burke]] (who served in the British House of Commons) with many of the ideas now called ''conservative''.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/burke_edmund.shtml BBC: Edmund Burke (1729 - 1797)]</ref> According to [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Hailsham]], a former chairman of the British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself."<ref>Viscount Hailsham. ''The Conservative Case''. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1959.</ref>

Robert Eccleshall states, "It is the persistent image of society as a command structure in which the responsibilities of leadership can be exercised within the framework of a strong state manifested in divine-right royalism ... that distinguishes English conservatism from rival ideologies."<ref>Eccleshall, pp. 3, 18</ref>

[[Conservative political parties]] include the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] in the United States, the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] in Japan, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the United Kingdom, the [[Liberal Party of Australia]], the [[Kuomintang]] of the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan), the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the [[Pakistan Muslim League]] in Pakistan, and the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in India.

==Development of Western conservatism==
===English conservatism===
English conservatism, which was called [[Toryism]], emerged during the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] (1660–1688). It supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by [[Divine right of kings|divine right]]. However the [[Glorious Revolution]] (1688), which established constitutional government, led to a reformulation of Toryism which now considered sovereignty vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons.<ref>Eccleshall, p. ix, 21</ref>

According to conservative historians, [[Richard Hooker]] was the founding father of conservatism, the [[George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax|Marquess of Halifax]] is commended for his pragmatism, [[David Hume]] is commended for his conservative mistrust of rationalism in politics, and [[Edmund Burke]] is considered the leading early theorist. They have, however, been accused of selectivity in choosing writers who present a moderate and defensible view of conservatism. For example, Hooker lived before the emergence of conservatism, Halifax did not belong to any party, Hume was not involved in politics, and Burke was a [[Whig (British political party)|Whig]]. In the 19th century, Conservatives rejected Burke because of his defense of Catholic emancipation, and found inspiration in [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Bolingbroke]] instead. [[John Reeves]], who wrote a Tory response to the French Revolution, is ignored.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 2</ref> Conservatives also objected to Burke's support of the American Revolution, which the Tory Samuel Johnson, for example, attacked in "Taxation No Tyranny".

Conservatism developed in [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] England from [[Cavalier|royalism]]. Royalists supported absolute monarchy, arguing that the sovereign governed by [[Divine right of kings|divine right]]. They opposed the theory that sovereignty derived from the people, the authority of parliament and freedom of religion. [[Robert Filmer]]’s ''Patriarcha: or the Natural Power of Kings'', which had been written before the [[English Civil War]], became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. Following the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, the conservatives, known as [[Tory (British political party)|Tories]], accepted that the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons held sovereignty jointly.<ref>Eccleshall, pp. 21-25</ref> However Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendency.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 31</ref> The party, which was renamed the Conservative Party in the 1830s, returned as a major political force after becoming home to both paternalistic aristocrats and free market capitalists in an uneasy alliance.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 43</ref>

[[Edmund Burke]] was the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and official pamphlateer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig Party.<ref>Stanlis, Peter J. ''Edmund Burke: selected writings and speeches''. New York: Transaction Publishers (2009), p.18</ref> Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The Conservative Illusion''. Columbia University Press (1959), p. 33</ref> Burke's views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the [[American Revolution]] but abhored the violence of the [[French Revolution]]. He accepted the liberal ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith, but thought that economics should be kept subordinate to the conservative social ethic, that capitalism should be subordinate to the medieval social tradition and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The conservative illusion.'' Columbia University Press (1959), p. 40</ref> He insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The Conservative Illusion''. Columbia University Press (1959) ,p.37</ref> That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The conservative illusion''. Columbia University Press (1959), p. 52</ref> He favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The conservative illusion''. Columbia University Press (1959), pp. 53-54</ref> Burke justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The conservative illusion.'' Columbia University Press (1959), p. 41</ref>
[[Image:Edmund Burke2.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Edmund Burke]] (1729–1797)]]

In the 19th century, conflict between wealthy businessmen and the aristocracy split the British conservative movement, with the aristocracy calling for a return to medieval ideas while the business classes called for laissez-faire capitalism.<ref>Auerbach, M. Morton ''The conservative illusion.'' Columbia University Press (1959), pp. 39-40</ref>

Although conservatives opposed attempts to allow greater representation of the middle class in parliament, in 1834 they conceded that electoral reform could not be reversed and promised to support further reforms so long as they did not erode the institutions of church and state. These new principles were presented in the [[Tamworth Manifesto]] which is considered by historians to be the basic statement of the beliefs of the new Conservative Party.<ref>Eccleshall, pp. 79-80</ref>

Some conservatives lamented the passing of a pastoral world where the ethos of ''[[noblesse oblige]]'' had promoted respect from the lower classes. They saw the Anglican church and the aristocracy as balances against commercial wealth.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 83</ref> They worked toward legislation for improved working conditions and urban housing.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 90</ref> This viewpoint would later be called [[Tory Democracy]].<ref>Eccleshall, p. 121</ref> However since Burke there has always a tension between traditional aristocratic conservatism and the wealthy business class.<ref>Eccleshall, p. 6-7</ref>

By the late 19th century, the traditional business supporters of the UK [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] had joined the Conservatives, making them the party of business and commerce.<ref>Feuchtwanger, p. 273</ref>

In the United States, conservatism developed after the Second World War when [[Russell Kirk]] and other writers identified an American conservative tradition based on the ideas of Edmund Burke. However many writers do not accept American conservatism as genuine and consider it to be a variety of liberalism.<ref>''The conservative political tradition in Britain and the United States'' Arthur Aughey, Greta Jones, W. T. M. Riches, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press (1992) pp. 1-31</ref>

[[File:Jmaistre.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Joseph de Maistre]] (1753-1821)]]

===French conservatism===
{{Expand section|date=September 2010}}
Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by [[Counter-Enlightenment]] works by men such as [[Joseph de Maistre]] and [[Louis de Bonald]]. French conservatism was less pragmatic and more [[reactionary]] than the conservatism of Burke.

Eventually conservatives added [[patriotism]] and [[nationalism]] to the list of traditional values they support. German conservatives were the first to embrace nationalism, which was previously associated with [[liberalism]] and the Revolution in France.<ref>ams, Ian Political Ideology Today (2nd edition), Manchester University Press, 2002, pg. 46</ref>

Today, movements that use the name "conservative" have a wide variety of views.

==Variants==
===Liberal conservatism===
[[Liberal conservatism]] is a variant of conservatism that combines conservative values and policies with classical [[Liberalism|liberal]] stances.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=xGNRRwkZFysC&pg=PA109 Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science] Ellen Grigsby, Cengage Learning, 2008
ISBN 0-495-50112-3, 9780495501121 pp. 108, 109, 112, 347</ref> As these latter two terms have had different meanings over time and across countries, liberal conservatism also has a wide variety of meanings. Historically, the term often referred to the combination of [[Liberal theory of economics|economic liberalism]], which champions [[laissez-faire]] markets, with the classical conservatism concern for established [[tradition]], respect for authority and religious values. It contrasted itself with [[classical liberalism]], which supported [[Individual freedom|freedom for the individual]] in both the economic and social spheres.

Over time, the general conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberal arguments, and the term ''liberal conservatism'' was replaced with ''conservatism''. This is also the case in countries where liberal economic ideas have been the tradition, such as the United States, and are thus considered conservative. In other countries where liberal conservative movements have entered the political mainstream, such as [[Italy]] and [[Spain]], the terms ''liberal'' and ''conservative'' may be synonymous. The liberal conservative tradition in the United States combines the economic [[individualism]] of the classical liberals with a [[Edmund Burke|Burkean]] form of conservatism (which has also become part of the [[American conservatism|American conservative]] tradition, such as in the writings of [[Russell Kirk]]).

A secondary meaning for the term ''liberal conservatism'' that has developed in [[Europe]] is a combination of more modern conservative (less traditionalist) views with those of [[social liberalism]]. This has developed as an opposition to the more [[collectivist]] views of [[socialism]]. Often this involves stressing what are now conservative views of free-market economics and belief in individual responsibility, with social liberal views on defence of [[civil rights]], [[environmentalism]] and support for a limited [[welfare state]]. This philosophy is that of [[Sweden|Swedish]] Prime Minister [[Fredrik Reinfeldt]]. In continental Europe, this is sometimes also translated into [[English language|English]] as [[social conservatism]].

===Conservative liberalism===
[[Conservative liberalism]] is a variant of [[liberalism]] that combines liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or, more simply, the right wing of the liberal movement.<ref>{{fr icon}} [http://www.ipolitique.fr/liberalisme-conservateur.htm Ipolitique.fr]</ref><ref>[http://www.parties-and-elections.de/contents.html Parties-and-elections.de]</ref><ref name="Mair">[[Michael Gallagher (academic)|M. Gallagher]], M. Laver and [[Peter Mair|P. Mair]], ''Representative Government in Europe'', p. 221.</ref> The roots of conservative liberalism are found at the beginning of the [[History of liberal thought|history of liberalism]]. Until the two [[World Wars]], in most European countries the political class was formed by conservative liberals, from [[Germany]] to [[Italy]]. The events such as [[World War I]] occurring after 1917 brought the more radical version of classical liberalism to a more conservative (i.e. more moderate) type of liberalism.<ref>Allen R.T., ''Beyond Liberalism'', p. 13.</ref>

===Libertarian conservatism===
{{Main|Libertarian conservatism}}
[[Libertarian conservatism]] describes certain political ideologies within the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] which combines [[libertarian]] economic issues with aspects of conservatism. Its five main branches are [[Constitutionalism]], [[paleolibertarianism]], neolibertarianism, [[American conservatism|small government conservatism]] and [[Christian libertarianism]]. They generally differ from [[paleoconservatives]], in that they are in favor of more [[liberty|personal]] and [[economic freedom]].<ref name="paleo">{{cite web|title=Paleoconservatives - Definition on Worddiq|url=http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Paleoconservatives}}</ref>

[[Agorist]]s such as [[Samuel Edward Konkin III]] labeled libertarian conservatism [[right-libertarianism]].<ref name="nlm">{{cite web|title=New Libertarian Manifesto|url=http://agorism.info/NewLibertarianManifesto.pdf}}</ref><ref name="int">{{cite web|title=Interview With Samuel Edward Konkin III|url=http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/software/konkin-interview.html}}</ref>

In contrast to [[paleoconservative]]s, libertarian conservatives support strict [[laissez-faire]] policies such as [[free trade]], opposition to the [[Federal Reserve]] and opposition to [[regulations|business regulations]]. They are vehemently opposed to [[environmental regulation]]s, [[corporate welfare]], [[subsidies]], and other areas of economic intervention. Many of them have views in accord to [[Ludwig von Mises]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} However, many of them oppose [[abortion]], as they see it as a [[positive liberty]] and violates the [[non-aggression principle]] because abortion is aggression towards the fetus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lewrockwell.com/vance/vance133.html|title=Is Ron Paul Wrong on Abortion?|last=Vance|first=Laurence |date=January 29, 2008|publisher=LewRockwell.com|accessdate=2008-07-01}}</ref>

===Fiscal conservatism===
[[Fiscal conservatism]] is the economic philosophy of prudence in government spending and debt.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=B10JkvO82x8C&pg=PA109 Correctional organization and management: public policy challenges, behavior, and structure] Robert M. Freeman, Elsevier, 1999 ISBN 0-7506-9897-7, 9780750698979 ]</ref> Edmund Burke, in his '[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]', argued that a government does not have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer:
<blockquote>
...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.</blockquote>

===Green conservatism===
[[Green conservatism]] is a term used to refer to conservatives who have incorporated [[Green politics|green]] concerns into their [[ideology]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=qiSp-MuGjZkC&pg=PA124 Beyond the New Right] John Gray, Routledge, 1995 ISBN 0-415-10706-7, 9780415107068]</ref> One of the first uses of the term ''green conservatism'' was by former United States [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Newt Gingrich]], in a debate on environmental issues with [[John Kerry]].<ref>[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=20393&c=1&tb=1&pb=1&gd=04232007 We Can Have Green Conservatism - And We Should - HUMAN EVENTS] Retrieved February 20, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.redstate.com/blogs/newt_gingrich/2007/apr/18/the_case_for_green_conservatism The Case for Green Conservatism - Redstate] Retrieved February 20, 2010.</ref> Around this time, the green conservative movement was sometimes referred to as the ''crunchy con'' movement, a term popularized by ''[[National Review]]'' magazine and the writings of [[Rod Dreher]].<ref name=DreherCC>{{cite book
|last = Dreher
|first = Rod
|authorlink = Rod Dreher
|title = Crunchy Cons: The New Conservative Counterculture and Its Return to Roots
|publisher = [[Random House]]
|year = 2006
|isbn = 1400050650}}</ref> The group [[Republicans for Environmental Protection]] seeks to strengthen the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party's]] stance on environmental issues, and supports efforts to conserve natural resources and protect human and environmental health.

The Conservative Party in the United Kingdom under David Cameron has embraced a green agenda, including a tax on workplace car parking spaces, a halt to airport growth, a tax on gas-guzzling 4x4s and restrictions on car advertising. The measures were suggested by The Quality of Life Policy Group, which was set up by Cameron to help fight climate change.

===Cultural and social conservatism===
{{Main|Cultural conservatism|social conservatism}}
Cultural conservatives support the preservation of the heritage of one nation, or of a shared culture that is not defined by national boundaries.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=RbwDNb5jtzUC&printsec=frontcover Cultural conservatism, political liberalism: from criticism to cultural studies ] James Seaton, University of Michigan Press, 1996 ISBN 0-472-10645-7, 9780472106455]</ref> The shared culture may be as divergent as [[Western culture]] or [[Chinese culture]]. In the United States, the term ''cultural conservative'' may imply a conservative position in the [[culture war]]. Cultural conservatives hold fast to traditional ways of thinking even in the face of monumental change. They believe strongly in traditional values and traditional politics, and often have an urgent sense of nationalism.

Social conservatism is distinct from cultural conservatism, although there are some overlaps. Social conservatives believe that the government has a role in encouraging or enforcing what they consider traditional values or behaviors. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores, often through civil law or regulation. Social change is generally regarded as suspect.

A second meaning of the term ''social conservatism'' developed in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[continental Europe]]. There it refers to [[liberal conservatism|liberal conservatives]] supporting modern European [[welfare state]]s.

Social conservatives (in the first meaning of the word) in many countries generally favor the [[pro-life]] position in the [[abortion controversy]] and oppose public funding of [[embryonic stem cell]] research; oppose both [[eugenics]] (inheritable genetic modification) and [[human enhancement]] ([[transhumanism]]) while supporting [[bioconservatism]];<ref>[http://www.utne.com/2005-01-01/TheNextDigitalDivide.aspx?page=2 The Next Digital Divide] (utne article)</ref> support a traditional definition of marriage as being one man and one woman; view the [[nuclear family]] model as society's foundational unit; oppose expansion of [[civil marriage]] and [[child adoption]] rights to couples in [[same-sex relationship]]s; promote [[public morality]] and traditional [[family values]]; oppose [[secularism]] and privatization of religious belief; support the prohibition of [[Prohibition (drugs)|drugs]], [[prostitution]], [[premarital sex]], [[extramarital sex|non-marital sex]] and [[euthanasia]]; and support the [[censorship]] of [[pornography]] and what they consider to be [[obscenity]] or [[indecency]].

===Religious conservatism===
{{See also|Religious right (disambiguation)| Christian Right}}
Religious conservatives seek to apply the teachings of particular religions to politics, sometimes by merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=LP9bIrZ9xacC&pg=PA469 Sociology: understanding a diverse society ] Margaret L. Andersen, Howard Francis Taylor , Cengage Learning, 2005 ISBN 0-534-61716-6, 9780534617165</ref> Radical religious conservatives generally see the status quo as debased by abuses, corruption, or heresy. Such phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions.

==Conservatism in different countries==
{{Original research|section|date=May 2010}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=May 2010}}
{{further|[[right-wing]] and [[political spectrum]]}}
Conservative political parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve. Both conservative and liberal parties tend to favor private ownership of property, in opposition to communist, socialist and green parties, which favor communal ownership or laws requiring social responsibility on the part of property owners. Where conservatives and liberals differ is primarily on social issues. Conservatives tend to reject behavior that does not conform to some social norm. For many years, conservative parties fought to stop extension of voting rights to groups such as to non-Christians, non-whites and women. Modern conservative parties often define themselves by their opposition to liberal or labour parties. The United States usage of the term ''conservative'' is unique to that country.<ref>Ware, Alan. ''Political Parties and Party Systems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-878076-1, pp. 31-33</ref>

According to Alan Ware, the following countries retained viable conservative parties into the 1980s: Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, France, Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.<ref>Ware, Alan. ''Political Parties and Party Systems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-878076-1</ref> Ware argues that Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malta, New Zealand, Spain and the US had no conservative parties, although they had either Christian Democrats or liberals as major right-wing parties. Canada, Ireland, and Portugal had right-wing political parties that defied categorization: the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]]; [[Fianna Fáil]], [[Fine Gael]], and [[Progressive Democrats]] in Ireland; and the [[Social Democratic Party (Portugal)|Social Democratic Party]] of Portugal.<ref>Ware, Alan. ''Political Parties and Party Systems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-878076-1, p. 44</ref> Since then, the [[Swiss People's Party]] has moved to the extreme right and is no longer considered to be conservative.<ref>Flecker, Jörg. ''Changing working life and the appeal of the extreme right''. Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007 ISBN 0754649156, p. 19</ref>

[[Klaus von Beyme]], who developed the method of party categorization, found that no modern Eastern European parties could be considered conservative, although the communist and communist-successor parties had strong similarities.<ref>Lewis, Paul G. ''Political parties in post-communist Eastern Europe''. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-20182-9 pp. 54-55</ref>

In Italy, which was united by liberals and radicals (''[[risorgimento]]''), liberals not conservatives emerged as the party of the Right.<ref>Smith, Denis Mack. ''Modern Italy: a political history''. University of Michigan Press, 1997. ISBN 0-472-10895-6 p. 31</ref> In the Netherlands, conservatives merged into a new Christian democratic party in 1980.<ref>Daalder, Hans and Irwin, Galen A. ''Politics in the Netherlands: how much change?'' Routledge, 1989. ISBN 07146336 pp. 154-157</ref> In Austria, Germany, Portugal and Spain, conservatism was transformed into and incorporated into fascism or the [[far right]].<ref>Blinkhorn, Martin. ''Fascists and conservatives''. Routledge, 1990. p. 7</ref> In 1940, all Japanese parties were merged into a single fascist party. Following the war, Japanese conservatives briefly returned to politics but were largely purged from public office.<ref>Takemae, Eiji, and Ricketts, Robert. ''The allied occupation of Japan''. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003. ISBN 0-8264-1521-0 pp. 262-263</ref>

[[Louis Hartz]] explained the absence of conservatism in Australia or the United States as a result of their settlement as radical or liberal fragments of Great Britain. Although he said English Canada had a negligible conservative influence, subsequent writers claimed that [[United Empire Loyalist|loyalists]] opposed to the American Revolution brought a Tory ideology into Canada. Hartz explained conservatism in Quebec and Latin America as a result of their settlement as feudal societies.<ref>Fierlbeck, Katherine. ''Political thought in Canada: an intellectual history''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006. ISBN 1-55111-711-8 pp.87-88</ref> The American conservative writer [[Russell Kirk]] provided the opinion that conservatism had been brought to the US and interpreted the American revolution as a "conservative revolution".<ref>Kirk, Russell. ''The Conservative Mind''. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-89526-171-5, 2001. ISBN 0-89526-171-5 p. 6, 63</ref>

Conservative elites have long dominated Latin American nations. Mostly this has been achieved through control of and support for civil institutions, the church and the armed forces, rather than through party politics. Typically the church was exempt from taxes and its employees immune from civil prosecution. Where national conservative parties were weak or non-existent, conservatives were more likely to rely on military dictatorship as a preferred form of government. However in some nations where the elites were able to mobilize popular support for conservative parties, longer periods of political stability were achieved. Chile, Colombia and Venezuela are examples of nations that developed strong conservative parties. Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador and Peru are examples of nations where this did not occur.<ref>Middlebrook, Kevin J. ''Conservative parties, the right, and democracy in Latin America''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8018-6386-4 p. 1-52</ref> The Conservative Party of Venezuela disappeared following the [[Federal War]]s of 1858-1863.<ref>Peeler, John A. ''Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica, Venezuela''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. p. 79</ref> Chile's conservative party, the [[National Party (Chile, 1966–1973)|National Party]] disbanded in 1973 following a military coup and did not re-emerge as a political force following the subsequent return to democracy.<ref>Oppenheim, Lois Hecht. ''Politics in Chile: socialism, authoritarianism, and market democracy''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2007. ISBN 0-8133-4227-9 p. 151-152</ref>

The conservative [[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]] governed the province of Quebec in periods from 1936 to 1960, in a close alliance with English Canadian business elites and the Catholic Church. This period, known as the [[Grande Noirceur|Great Darkness]] ended with the [[Quiet Revolution]] and the party went into terminal decline.<ref>Conway, John Frederick. ''Debts to pay: the future of federalism in Quebec''. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company, 2004. ISBN 1-55028-814-8 pp. 57, 77</ref>

===Belgium===
[[Image:Logo-cdenv.png‎|thumb|left|75px|]]
Founded in 1945 as the Christian People's Party, the [[Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams|Flemish Christian Democrats]] (CD&V) dominated politics in post-war Belgium. In 1999, the party's support collapsed and it became the country's fifth largest party.<ref>Annesley, Claire. ''A political and economic dictionary of Western Europe''. London: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 1-85743-214-2, p. 124</ref>

===Canada===
{{Main|Canadian conservatism}}
[[Image:Conservative Party of Canada.svg‎|thumb|left|75px|]]
Canada's ''Conservatives'' had their roots in the Loyalists - Tories - who left America after the American Revolution. They developed in the socio-economic and political cleavages that existed during the first three decades of the 19th century, and had the support of the business, professional and established Church (Anglican) elites in Ontario and to a lesser extent in Quebec. Holding a monopoly over administrative and judicial offices, they were called the "[[Family Compact]]" in Ontario and the "[[Chateau Clique]]" in Quebec. [[John A. Macdonald]]'s successful leadership of the movement to confederate the provinces and his subsequent tenure as prime minister for most of the late 19th century rested on his ability to bring together the English-speaking Protestant oligarchy and the [[ultramontane]] Catholic hierarchy of Quebec and to keep them united in a conservative coalition.<ref>Kornberg, Allan and Mishler, William. ''Influence in Parliament, Canada''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1976. p. 38</ref>

The Conservatives combined [[economic liberalism|pro-market liberalism]] and [[Toryism]]. They generally supported an activist government and state intervention in the marketplace, and their policies were marked by ''[[noblesse oblige]]'', a paternalistic responsibility of the elites for the less well-off.<ref>Schultze, Rainer-Olaf; Sturm, Roland and Eberle, Dagmar. ''Conservative parties and right-wing politics in North America: reaping the benefits of an ideological victory?''. Germany: VS Verlag, 2003. ISBN 3-8100-3812-1 p. 15</ref> From 1942, the party was known as the Progressive Conservatives, until 2003, when the national party merged with the [[Canadian Alliance]] to form the [[Conservative Party of Canada]].<ref>Panizza, Francisco. ''Populism and the mirror of democracy''. London: Verso, 2005. ISBN 1-85984-489-8 p. 180</ref>

===Colombia===
[[Image:Conservative party logo.svg‎|thumb|left|75px|]]
The [[Colombian Conservative Party]], founded in 1849, traces its origins to opponents of General [[Francisco de Paula Santander]]'s 1833-37 administration. While the term "liberal" had been used to describe all political forces in Colombia, the conservatives began describing themselves as "conservative liberals" and their opponents as "red liberals". From the 1860s until the present, the party has supported strong central government, and supported the Catholic Church, especially its role as protector of the sanctity of the family, and opposed separation of church and state. Its policies include the legal equality of all men, the citizen's right to own property and opposition to dictatorship. It has usually been Colombia's second largest party, with the [[Colombian Liberal Party]] being the largest.

===Denmark===
[[Image:Konservative.png‎|thumb|left|100px|]]
Founded in 1915, the [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Conservative People's Party of Denmark]]. was the successor of ''Høyre'' (literally "[[Right-wing politics|right"]]). In the 2005 election it won 18 out of 159 seats in the ''Folketing'' and became a junior partner in coalition with the Liberals.<ref>Annesley, Claire. ''A political and economic dictionary of Western Europe''. London: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 1-85743-214-2, p. 68</ref> The party is preceded by 11 years by the [[Young Conservatives (Denmark)|Young Conservatives‎‎‎ (KU)]], today the youth movement of the party.

===Finland===
[[Image:National Coalition Party.jpg‎‎|thumb|left|100px|]]
The conservative party in Finland is the [[National Coalition Party]] (in Finnish ''Kansallinen Kokoomus'', ''Kok''). The party was founded in 1918 when several monarchist parties united. Although in the past the party was right-wing, today it is a moderate party. While the party advocates [[economic liberalism]], it is committed to the [[social market economy]].<ref>Siaroff, Alan. ''Comparative European party systems: an analysis of parliamentary elections since 1945''. New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc., 2000. ISBN 0-8153-2930-X, p. 243</ref>

===France===
[[Image:Logoump.png|thumb|left|100px|]]
Following the Second World War, conservatives in France supported Gaullist groups and have been nationalistic, and emphasized tradition, order, and the regeneration of France. Gaullists held divergent views on social issues. The number of Conservative groups, their lack of stability, and their tendency to be identified with local issues defy simple categorization. Conservatism has been the major political force in France since the second world war.<ref>Viereck, Peter and Ryn, Claes G. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-7658-0576-6 p. 205</ref> Unusually, post-war French conservatism was formed around the personality of a leader, [[Charles de Gaulle]], and did not draw on traditional French conservatism, but on the [[Bonapartism]] tradition.<ref>Ware, Alan. ''Political Parties and Party Systems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-878076-1, p. 32</ref> Gaullism in France continues under the [[Union for a Popular Movement]].<ref>Hauss, Charles. ''Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges''. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2008. ISBN 0-495-50109-3 p. 116</ref> The word "conservative" itself is a term of abuse in France.<ref>Knapp, Andrew and Wright, Vincent. ''The government and politics of France''. New york: Routledge, 2006. ISBN 0-415-35733-0 p. 211</ref>

===Greece===
[[Image:NewDemocracyLogo.svg‎‎|thumb|left|50px|]]
The main interwar conservative party was called the [[People's Party (Greece)|People's Party]] (PP), which supported constitutional monarchy and opposed the republican Liberal Party. It was able to re-group after the Second World War as part of a ''United Nationalist Front'' which achieved power campaigning on a simple anticommunist, ultranationalist platform. However, the vote received by the PP declined, leading them to create an expanded party, the [[Greek Rally]], under the leadership of the charismatic General [[Alexandros Papagos]]. The conservatives opposed the far right dictatorship of the colonels (1967–1974) and established the [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democratic Party]] following the fall of the dictatorship. The new party had four objectives: to confront Turkish expansionism in Cyprus, to reestablish and solidify democratic rule, to give the country a strong government, and to make a powerful moderate party a force in Greek politics.<ref>Penniman, Howard Rae. ''Greece at the polls: the national elections of 1974 and 1977''. Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1981. ISBN 0-8447-3434-9 pp. 49-59</ref>

===Iceland===
[[Image:Independence party.jpg‎|thumb|left|50px|]]
Founded in 1926 as the Conservative Party, Iceland's [[Independence Party (Iceland)|Independence Party]] adopted its current name in 1929. From the beginning they have been the largest vote-winning party, averaging around 40%. They combine liberalism and conservatism, supporting nationalization and opposed to class conflict. While mostly in opposition during the 1930s, they embraced [[economic liberalism]], but accepted the welfare state after the war and participated in governments supportive of state intervention and protectionism. Unlike other Scandanivian conservative (and liberal) parties, it has always had a large working-class following.<ref>Grofman, Bernard and Lijpart, Arend, editors. ''The evolution of electoral and party systems in the Nordic countries''. New York: Agathon Press, 2002. "The Icelandic electoral system 1844-1999" by Olafur Th. Hardarson ISBN 0-87586-138-5, pp. 107-108</ref>

===Luxembourg===
[[Image:Christian Social People's Party logo.PNG‎|thumb|left|50px|]]
Luxembourg's major conservative party, the [[Christian Social People's Party]] (CSV or PCS) was formed as the Party of the Right in 1914, and adopted its present name in 1945. It was consistently the largest political party in Luxembourg and dominated politics throughout the 20th century.<ref>Urwin, Derek W. ''A Dictionary of European History and Politics, 1945-1995''. London: Pearson UK, 1996. ISBN 0-582-25874-X p. 76.</ref>

===Norway===
[[Image:Høyre logo.svg‎|thumb|left|50px|]]
The [[Conservative Party (Norway)|Conservative Party of Norway]] (Norwegian: Høyre, literally "[[Right-wing politics|right"]]) was formed by the old upper class of state officials and wealthy merchants to fight the populist democracy of the [[Liberal Party (Norway)|Liberal Party]], but lost power in 1884 when parliamentarian government was first practised. It has elements both of paternalism, stressing the responsibilities of the state and of economic liberalism. It first returned to power in the 1960s.<ref>[[Knut Heidar|Heidar, Knut]]. ''Norway: elites on trial''. Boulder Westview Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8133-3200-1, p. 66-67</ref>

===Sweden===
[[Image:250px-Nya moderaterna.png‎|thumb|left|50px|]]
Sweden's conservative party, the [[Moderate Party]], was formed in 1904, two years after the founding of the liberal party.<ref>Grofman, Bernard and Lijpart, Arend, editors. ''The evolution of electoral and party systems in the Nordic countries''. New York: Agathon Press, 2002. "The Icelandic electoral system 1844-1999" by Olafur Th. Hardarson ISBN 0-87586-138-5, pp. 107-235</ref> The party emphasizes tax reductions, deregulation of private enterprise, and the partial privatization of education.<ref>Thomas, Clive S. (editor). ''Political Parties and Interest Groups: Shaping Democratic Governance''. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2001. ISBN 1-55587-978-0 "Sweden: Weakening Links Between Political Parties and Interest Organizations" by Anders Widfeldt</ref>

===United Kingdom===
Conservatism in the [[United Kingdom]] is related to its counterparts in other Western nations, but has a distinct tradition. [[Edmund Burke]] is often considered the ''father of conservatism'' in the English-speaking world. Burke was a [[British Whig Party|Whig]], while the term ''[[Tory]]'' is given to the later Conservative Party. One [[Australia]]n scholar argues, "For Edmund Burke and Australians of a like mind, the essence of conservatism lies not in a body of theory, but in the disposition to maintain those institutions seen as central to the beliefs and practices of society."<ref name="gw">Worthington, Glen, [http://web.archive.org/web/20060913184447/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2001-02/02RN29.htm Conservatism in Australian National Politics], Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library, 19 February 2002</ref>

[[Image:Thatcher - Reagan c872-9.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Margaret Thatcher]], a radical reformer of Britain.]]
The old established form of English and, after the [[Acts of Union 1707|Act of Union]], British conservatism, was the Tory Party. It reflected the attitudes of a rural land owning class, and championed the institutions of the monarchy, the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican Church]], the family, and property as the best defence of the social order. In the early stages of the [[industrial revolution]], it seemed to be totally opposed to a process that seemed to undermine some of these bulwarks. The new industrial elite were seen by many as enemies to the social order. [[Robert Peel]] was able to reconcile the new industrial class to the Tory landed class by persuading the latter to accept the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in 1846. He created a new political group that sought to preserve the old status quo while accepting the basics of [[laissez-faire]] and [[free trade]]. The new coalition of traditional landowners and sympathetic industrialists constituted the new [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]].

[[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]] gave the new party a political ideology. As a young man, he was influenced by the [[romantic movement]] and [[medievalism]], and developed a devastating critique of industrialism. In his novels, he outlined an England divided into two nations, each living in perfect ignorance of each other. He foresaw, like [[Karl Marx]], the phenomenon of an alienated industrial proletariat. His solution involved a return to an idealised view of a corporate or organic society, in which everyone had duties and responsibilities towards other people or groups. This "one nation" conservatism is still a significant tradition in British politics. It has animated a great deal of social reform undertaken by successive Conservative governments.

Although nominally a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the [[Chartists]] and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the middle class, helping to found the [[Young England]] group in 1842 to promote the view that the rich should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by the middle class. The conversion of the Conservative Party into a modern mass organisation was accelerated by the concept of [[Tory Democracy]] attributed to Lord [[Randolph Churchill]].

[[Image:CMEC 1 009.jpg|thumb|[[David Cameron]], the current [[prime minister]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and leader of [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]].]]
A Liberal-Conservative coalition during [[World War I]], coupled with the ascent of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], hastened the collapse of the Liberals in the 1920s. After [[World War II]], the Conservative Party made concessions to the socialist policies of the Left. This compromise was a pragmatic measure to regain power, but also the result of the early successes of [[central planning]] and state ownership forming a cross-party consensus. This was known as [[Butskellism]], after the almost identical [[Keynesian]] policies of [[Rab Butler]] on behalf of the Conservatives, and [[Hugh Gaitskell]] for Labour.

However, in the 1980s, under the leadership of [[Margaret Thatcher]], and the influence of [[Keith Joseph]], there was a dramatic shift in the ideological direction of British conservatism, with a movement towards [[free-market]] economic policies. As one commentator explains, "The [[privatization]] of state owned industries, unthinkable before, became commonplace [during Thatcher's government] and has now been imitated all over the world."<ref name="mt">Davies, Stephen, [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/onprin/v1n2/davies.html Margaret Thatcher and the Rebirth of Conservatism], Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs, July 1993</ref> Some commentators have questioned whether [[Thatcherism]] was consistent with the traditional concept of conservatism in the [[United Kingdom]], and saw her views as more consistent with radical [[classical liberalism]]. Thatcher was described as "a radical in a conservative party",<ref name="mt"/> and her ideology has been seen as confronting "established institutions" and the "accepted beliefs of the elite",<ref name="mt"/> both concepts incompatible with the traditional conception of conservatism as signifying support for the established order and existing social convention.

===United States===
{{Main|Conservatism in the United States}}
Conservatism in the [[United States]] includes a variety of political ideologies including [[fiscal conservatism]], [[supply-side economics]], [[social conservatism]], [[libertarian conservatism]], [[bioconservative|bioconservatism]] and religious conservatism,<ref>[http://atheism.about.com/library/weekly/aa070898.htm About atheism]</ref> as well as support for a strong [[military]]. Modern American conservatism was largely born out of alliance between [[Classical liberalism|classical liberals]] and social conservatives in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name="Clark">Clark, B. (1998). ''Political economy: A comparative approach''. Westport, CT: Praeger.</ref>

Contemporary American conservatism traces its heritage back to Anglo-Irish political philosopher [[Edmund Burke]], who developed his views in response to the [[French Revolution]].<ref>Kirk, Russell, ''The Conservative Mind,'' p. 6.</ref> US President [[Abraham Lincoln]] wrote that conservatism is "the adherence to the old and tried, against the new and untried."<ref>Kirk, Russell, ''The Conservative Mind,'' p. 8.</ref> US president [[Ronald Reagan]], who was a self-declared conservative, is widely seen as a symbol of American conservatism.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Conservatism|url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/conservatsm.html|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|year=2008|edition=6th}}</ref> In an interview, he said "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is [[libertarianism]]."<ref>[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29318.html Inside Ronald Reagan], a [[Reason (magazine)|Reason magazine]] Interview with Ronald Reagan, July 1975.</ref> Organizations in the US committed to promoting conservative ideology include the [[American Conservative Union]], [[Eagle Forum]], [[Heritage Foundation]] and the [[Hoover Institution]]. US-based media outlets that are conservative include ''[[Human Events]]'', ''[[National Review]]'', ''[[The American Conservative]]'', ''[[Policy Review]]'', and ''[[The Weekly Standard]]''.

In the US, social conservatives emphasize traditional views of social units such as the [[family]], [[Church body|church]], or [[Localism (politics)|locale]]. Social conservatism may entail defining [[marriage]] as relationships between one man and one woman (thereby prohibiting [[same-sex marriage]] and [[polygamy]]) and laws placing restrictions on the practice of [[abortion]]. While many religious conservatives believe that government should have a role in defending moral values, libertarian conservatives such as [[Barry Goldwater]] advocated a hands-off government where social values were concerned.

== Psychology ==
Following the Second World War, psychologists conducted research into the different motives and tendencies that account for ideological differences between left and right. The early studies focused on conservatives, beginning with [[Theodor W. Adorno]]'s ''[[The Authoritarian Personality]]'' (1950). This book has been heavily criticized on theoretical and methodological grounds, but some of its findings have been confirmed by further empirical research.<ref name="Jost, J.J 2003">Jost, J.J, Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A.A., & Sulloway, F.J. (2003). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. ''Psychological Bulletin, 129''(3), 339-375.</ref>

In 1973, British psychologist [[Glenn Wilson (psychologist)|Glenn Wilson]] published an influential book providing evidence that a general factor underlying conservative beliefs is "fear of uncertainty".<ref>Wilson, G.D. (Ed.)(1973) The Psychology of Conservatism, London: Academic Press.</ref> A meta-analysis of research literature by Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway in 2003 found that many factors, such as [[Ambiguity tolerance|intolerance of ambiguity]] and need for [[Cognitive closure (psychology)|cognitive closure]], contribute to the degree of one's political conservatism.<ref name="Jost, J.J 2003"/> A study by Kathleen Maclay stated these traits "might be associated with such generally valued characteristics as personal commitment and unwavering loyalty." The research also suggested that both liberals and conservatives are resistant to change; liberals simply have a higher tolerance.<ref>[http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/07/22_politics.shtml Berkeley.edu]</ref>

According to psychologist [[Robert Altemeyer]], individuals who are politically conservative tend to rank high in [[Right-wing Authoritarianism|Right-Wing Authoritarianism]] on his RWA scale.<ref>Altemeyer, B. (1981). Right-wing authoritarianism. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba Press.</ref> This finding was echoed by [[Theodor Adorno]]. A study done on Israeli and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores of right-wing party supporters were significantly higher than those of left-wing party supporters.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rubinstein | first1=G. | doi=10.1177/0022022196272005 | title=Two Peoples in One Land: A Validation Study of Altemeyer's Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale in the Palestinian and Jewish Societies in Israel | journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology | year=1996 | volume=27 |pages=216–230}}</ref> However, a 2005 study by H. Michael Crowson and colleagues suggested a moderate gap between RWA and other conservative positions. "The results indicated that conservatism is not synonymous with RWA." <ref>Crowson, H. Michael, Stephen J. Thoma, and Nita Hestevold. "Is political conservatism synonymous with authoritarianism?." The Journal of Social Psychology 145.5 (Oct 2005): 571(22). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Remote Access. 20 May 2009 [http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=EAIM Galegroup.com]</ref>

Psychologist Felicia Pratto and her colleagues have found evidence to support the idea that a high [[Social Dominance Orientation]] (SDO) is strongly correlated with conservative political views, and opposition to social engineering to promote equality, though Pratto's findings have been highly controversial.<ref name=pratto>{{cite journal |last1=Pratto |first1=Felicia |last2=Sidanius |first2=Jim |last3=Stallworth |first3=Lisa M. |last4=Malle |first4=Bertram F. |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741 |title=Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages= 741–763 }}</ref> Pratto and her colleagues found that high SDO scores were highly correlated with measures of [[prejudice]]. They were refuted in this claim by [[David J. Schneider]], who wrote that "correlations between prejudice and political conservative are reduced virtually to zero when controls for SDO are instituted" <ref>The psychology of stereotyping, David J. Schneider, Guilford Press, 2005 ISBN 1-59385-193-6, 9781593851934 704 pages page 275</ref> and by [[Kenneth Minogue]] who wrote "It is characteristic of the conservative temperament to value established identities, to praise habit and to respect prejudice, not because it is irrational, but because such things anchor the darting impulses of human beings in solidities of custom which we do not often begin to value until we are already losing them. Radicalism often generates youth movements, while conservatism is a condition found among the mature, who have discovered what it is in life they most value." <ref>The Social science encyclopedia, Jessica Kuper, Taylor & Francis, 1985 ISBN 0-7102-0008-0, 9780710200082 916 pages pp 155-6</ref>

A 1996 study on the relationship between racism and conservatism found that the correlation was stronger among more educated individuals, though specifically anti-Black racism did not increase. They also found that the correlation between racism and conservatism could be entirely accounted for by their mutual relationship with social dominance orientation. The authors concluded that opposition to affirmative action, especially among more highly educated conservatives, was better explained by social dominance orientation than by principled conservatism.<ref name=sidanius96>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476 |last1=Sidanius |first1= J |last2=Pratto |first2= F |last3=Bobo |first3= L |year=1996 |title=Racism, conservatism, affirmative action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance? |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume= 70 |issue=3 |pages= 476–490 |url=http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/soc/faculty/bobo/pdf%20documents/Racism.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
* Eccleshall, Robert. ''English Conservatism since the Restoration: An Introduction and Anthology''. London: Unwin Hyman, 1990 ISBN 0-04-445346-9
{{refend}}

===Further reading===
{{ORList|date=May 2010}}

{{wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}

*''Our Culture, What's Left of It: the Mandarins and the masses'' / [[Anthony Daniels (psychiatrist)|Theodore Dalrymple]]., 2005
*''Fascists and conservatives : the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe'' / Martin Blinkhorn., 1990
*''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' / [[Edmund Burke]]., 1997
*''The Superfluous Men: Critics of American Culture, 1900–1945'' / Robert Crunden., 1999
*''Recent conservative political thought : American perspectives'' / Russell G. Fryer., 1979
*''The Conservative Movement'' / Paul E. Gottfried., 1993
*''The British Right : Conservative and right wing politics in Britain'' / Neill Nugent., 1977
*''America alone: the neo-conservatives and the global order'' / Stefan A Halper., 2004
*''Conservatism'' / Ted Honderich.
*''The Conservative Mind'' / [[Russell Kirk]]., 2001
*''The Politics of Prudence'' / Russell Kirk., 1993
*''The conservative press in twentieth-century America'' / Ronald Lora., 1999
*''From the New Deal to the New Right: race and the southern origins of modern conservatism'' / Joseph E Lowndes., 2008
*''Conservatism'' / Jerry Z. Muller.
*''Right-wing women: from conservatives to extremists around the world'' / P Bacchetta., 2002
*''Unmaking law: the Conservative campaign to roll back the common law'' / Jay M Feinman., 2004
*''Radicals or conservatives?: the contemporary American right'' / James McEvoy., 1971
*''Conservatism: Dream and Reality'' / [[Robert Nisbet]]., 2001
*''Ought the Neo-Cons be Considered Conservatives?: a philosophical response'' / AQ: Journal of Contemporary Analysis. [http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00003599/ 75(6):32-33/40]. 2003
*''Conservatism in America since 1930: a reader'' / Gregory L. Schneider., 2003
*''Conservatism'' / Noel O'Sullivan.
*''The new racism : conservatives and the ideology of the tribe'' / Martin Barker., 1982
*''A time for choosing: the rise of modern American conservatism'' / Jonathan M Schoenwald., 2001
*''The Meaning of Conservatism'' / [[Roger Scruton]].
*''Facing fascism: the conservative party and the European dictators, 1935–1940'' / NJ Crowson., 1997
*''The End of Politics: triangulation, realignment and the battle for the centre ground'' / [[Alexander Lee]] and [[Timothy Stanley]]., 2006
*''Liberty, Equality, Fraternity'' / [[James Fitzjames Stephen]].

{{Political ideologies}}
{{UK Conservative Party}}

[[Category:Conservatism| ]]
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