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== Abbasid era ==
== Abbasid era ==
The Umayyads were overthrown in [[750]] by a new dynasty, the [[Abbasid]]s. The first Abbasid caliph, [[As-Saffah]] sought Shiite support in his campaign against the Umayyads by emphasizing his blood relationship to the Prophet's household through descent from his uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]]. In return, he promised them religious authority, through a Shi'ite Imam. Instead, As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of Caliph himself. He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother [[al-Mansur]] succeeded him in [[754]]. Sunnis' submission to him helped them avoid his wrath, although his retraction from his promise made Shi'as in a direct conflict with him. The [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|sixth Shi'a imam]] died during al-Mansur's reign, and there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph.<sup>''([[Ya'qubi]]; vol.lll, pp.91-96'', and ''[[Tarikh Abul Fida]]', vol. I, p.212.)''</sup>. Al-Mansur's autocratic rule resulted in religious intolerance and even the founder of a Sunni school of law, [[Abu Hanifah]], was imprisoned and tortured. He also had [[Ibn Hanbal]], the founder of another school of law, flogged. <sup>''([[Ya'qubi]], vol.lll, p.86; [[Muruj al-dhahab]], vol.lll, p.268-270.)''</sup>
The Umayyads were overthrown in [[750]] by a new dynasty, the [[Abbasid]]s. The first Abbasid caliph, [[As-Saffah]] sought Shiite support in his campaign against the Umayyads by emphasizing his blood relationship to the Prophet's household through descent from his uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]]. In return, he promised them religious authority, through a Shi'ite Imam. Instead, As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of Caliph himself. He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother [[al-Mansur]] succeeded him in [[754]]. Sunnis' submission to him helped them avoid his wrath, although his retraction from his promise made Shi'as in a direct conflict with him. The [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|sixth Shi'a imam]] died during al-Mansur's reign, and there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph.<sup>''([[Ya'qubi]]; vol.lll, pp.91-96'', and ''[[Tarikh Abul Fida]]', vol. I, p.212.)''</sup>. Al-Mansur's totalitarian rule resulted in religious intolerance and even the founder of a Sunni school of law, [[Abu Hanifah]], was imprisoned and tortured. He also had [[Ibn Hanbal]], the founder of another school of law, flogged. <sup>''([[Ya'qubi]], vol.lll, p.86; [[Muruj al-dhahab]], vol.lll, p.268-270.)''</sup>
This, however, should not be regarded as Shia-Sunni conflict. Instead it was actually a conflict of interests of an autocratic ruthless ruler, that resulted in a persecution of Shi'as.
This, however, should not be regarded as Shia-Sunni conflict. Instead it was actually a conflict of interests of an autocratic ruthless ruler, that resulted in a persecution of Shi'as.



Revision as of 19:17, 4 March 2006

Origins of the schism

Shias record the start of the schism with the death of Muhammad, and in their view, a violent coup d'état against Ali in his first day as caliph, which they argue was automatic without recourse to an election or a formal investiture. After that, Shias contend they were systematicly persecuted and killed by the first three Caliphs of Islam, with a brief respite ensuing during the caliphate of Ali.

Sunnis claim that the schism did not begin at the accession of the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, since Ali ultimately swore allegiance and served all his predecessors before his own accession. Sunnis in general reject dynastic claims of the Prophet's household to the Caliphate, although in reality they had submitted first to Umayyad, and Abbasid dynasties, and recently to Saud dynasty in Saudi Arabia. Note that most Sunnis agree that Ali was the fourth Caliph, and thus denounce the First Islamic civil war started by Muawiyah I against Ali. A small Wahhabi minority and radical Sunni elements, however, claim that Ali's Caliphate marked the beginning of the breach. For detailed information, see Succession to Muhammad.

It is noteworthy that the terms "Shi'a" and "Sunni" were not yet in general usage at that time.

Abbasid era

The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by a new dynasty, the Abbasids. The first Abbasid caliph, As-Saffah sought Shiite support in his campaign against the Umayyads by emphasizing his blood relationship to the Prophet's household through descent from his uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. In return, he promised them religious authority, through a Shi'ite Imam. Instead, As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of Caliph himself. He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother al-Mansur succeeded him in 754. Sunnis' submission to him helped them avoid his wrath, although his retraction from his promise made Shi'as in a direct conflict with him. The sixth Shi'a imam died during al-Mansur's reign, and there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph.(Ya'qubi; vol.lll, pp.91-96, and Tarikh Abul Fida', vol. I, p.212.). Al-Mansur's totalitarian rule resulted in religious intolerance and even the founder of a Sunni school of law, Abu Hanifah, was imprisoned and tortured. He also had Ibn Hanbal, the founder of another school of law, flogged. (Ya'qubi, vol.lll, p.86; Muruj al-dhahab, vol.lll, p.268-270.) This, however, should not be regarded as Shia-Sunni conflict. Instead it was actually a conflict of interests of an autocratic ruthless ruler, that resulted in a persecution of Shi'as.

On the orders of the tenth Abassid caliph, al-Mutawakkil, the tomb of the third Shia Imam al-Hussain in Karbala was completely demolished (Bihar al-Anwar, vol. XII, on the life of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq), and it is alleged that Shi'as were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive, or even placed alive within the walls of government buildings still under construction.(Shi'a Islam, p62) Although Sunnis never complained about his caliphate and thus prospered under his rule, raising suspicion from Shi'as who regard them as a party to al-Mutawakkil, it is hard to conclude that such incidents were instigated by sectarianism or a cruel ruler, who used to draw his power from religion was just strengthing his rule and unwilling to show tolerance to anything challenging his authority.

Such practices were even carried out during the time of Taliban rule in Afghanistan when "apostates" were executed by being put under collapsing walls. ref The Taliban are an extremist faction and generally equate Shi'ism with apostasy.

This persecution made Shi'as to continued to live for the most part in hiding and to follow their religious life secretly without external manifestations. (Ya'qubi. vol.ll, p.224; Abu'l-Fida', vol.l, p.192; Muruj al-dhahab, vol.lll, p.81., also Shi'a Islam, p60.)

Fatwas

Some Sunni scholars have been known for producing Fatwas, legal edicts of Takfir, on Shi'a. Likewise Shia scholars have been known to issue religious edicts against Sunnism. This is not dissimilar to the bulls and ecclesiastical edicts of Excommunication and heresy issued by the Eastern and Western Christian Churches against each other during their Great Schism. Recently, one edict in which Wahhabis believe, regards Shi'as as apostatized, and hence, calls for their death. It should be noted that usually it is radical Sunnis that aggressively challenge Shi'as, than vice versa.

With the birth of Wahhabism, the Sunni-Shi'a conflict gained momentum. Previously, it was mostly Muslim rulers, who persecuted their opponents without regard to their religious affiliations. Wahhabism went on to declare Shi'as apostates, and called for their death. This led to the genocide of Shi'as in Iraq, during the infamous march of Wahhabi armies in 1801. The same armies, under Saud's leadership formed the Kingdom of Saud [2]. It is the followers of the same idealogy, who are responsible for killing scores of Shi'as in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq without any regard to their age, and sex.

The spread of Shiism in the middle ages

The Buyids, who were Shi'a and had a significant influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself, provided a unique opportunity for the spread and diffusion of Shi'a thought. This spread of Shiism to the inner circles of the government enabled Shias to survive those who opposed them by relying upon the power of the caliphate.

Shah Muhammad Khudabandah, the famous builder of Soltaniyeh, was among the first of the Mongols to convert to Shi'aism, and his descendants ruled for many years in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shia thought. (Abu'l-Fida', vol.ll, p.63 and vol.lll, p.50)

Mention must also be made of the kings of the Aq Qoynlu and Qara Qoynlu dynasties who ruled in Tabriz and whose domain extended to Fars and Kerman, as well as of the Fatimid government which was ruling in Egypt.(al-Ka-mil of Ibn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Raudat al-safa'; and Habib al-siyar of Khwand Mir)

Religious intolerance, however, continued to thrive. Shias claim that despite these advances, many Shi'as in Syria continued to be killed during this period merely for being Shi'a. One of these was Muhammad Ibn Makki called Shahid-i Awwal (the First Martyr), one of the great figures in Shi'a jurisprudence, who was killed in Damascus in 1384CE.(al-Ka-mil of Ibn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Raudat al-safa'; and Habib al-siyar of Khwand Mir)

Shihab Al-Din Suhrawardi was another eminent scholar, killed in Aleppo on charges of cultivating Batini teachings and philosophy.(al-Ka-mil of Ibn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Raudat al-safa'; and Habib al-siyar of Khwand Mir)

Modern Shi'a-Sunni relations

While overwhelming majority of Sunnis and Shi'as are against religious intolerance and believe in harmony of relationships within various sects and also with people from other religions, there have been certain elements on both sides who preach hatred. This hatred is at the same intensity as that non-Muslims usually experience from Islamic fanatics.

Saudi Arabia

Even today Saudi Arabia, whose official religion is Wahhabism, declares the Shi'a as "not being Muslims"[3], (The Arab Shia, chap1) , or "Mushrik". In a country, with no regard to human rights, Shi'a minority which has absolutely no political power or rights. They are not allowed to practice their religion openly and are barred from key government positions [4][5][6]. Note that Saudi Arabia is an absolutist monarchy an generally no rights are available by law or plurality to any political participation outside the ruling family and its supporters.

Iran

Iran has recently reported some instances of discrimination against Sunni Iranians. In Iran, while Shi'a religious institutions are encouraged, radical Sunnis it is alleged that Sunni institutions are blocked. Despite the fact that more than one million Sunnis live in Tehran, many of them Kurds, no Sunni mosque exists to serve their religious needs [7]. In a public protest, eighteen Sunni parliamentarians wrote to the authorities in July 2003 to criticize the treatment of the Sunni Muslim community and the refusal to allow construction of a mosque in Tehran that would serve that community. [8]

In February 2006, a struggle of Sufis for a place for rituals in Qom turned violent, and several Sufis were arrested.[9][10]

Pakistan

In Pakistan, Zia-ul-Haq used Islam to divide the people into mutually hostile sectarian groups. Being himself devout Wahhabi, he promoted the Wahhabi version of Islam, which was further strengthened by the influx of thousands of Arab Wahhabi missionaries. Some terrorist groups made association with these missionaries and started carrying out their anti-Shi'ite agenda. Shi'as responded with their own anti-Wahhabi movement. Years of this sectarian strife has taken its toll, and thousands of Muslims from both sects, mostly Shias, have been killed since then. Post 9/11 events have given another dimension to this conflict, and recently suicide bombings in Shia mosques have been witnessed similar to the ones in Iraq, which was previously an unknown phenomenon in Pakistan.

Al Qaeda

Some extremist Sunni groups, such as the Taliban or Al Qaeda, have even advocated the persecution of the Shi'a as heretics [11] Such groups have been responsible for violent attacks and suicide bombings at Shi'a gatherings at mosques and shrines, most notably in Iraq during the Ashura mourning ceremonies where hundreds of Shias were killed in coordinated suicide bombings [12][13][14], but also in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

However, many Shi'as have come to welcome the ostracization by the Sunni majority, which helps distance them from such Sunni phenomena (albeit extremist) as the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

Iraq

In Iraq, where the Shia have been a majority of the population, the Sunni establishment ruled them for many years. The British, who, having put down a Shia rebellion against their rule in the 1920s, "confirmed their reliance on a corps of Sunni ex-officers of the collapsed Ottoman empire" (The Arab Shia, p46).

The Shia suffered indirect and direct persecution under independent Iraqi governments since 1932, especially that of Saddam Hussein. Shia religious leaders have been particularly targeted. "Between 1970 and 1985 the [Baathist] regime executed at least 41 clerics" (ibid, p101), and Shia opposition to the government following the first Gulf War was ruthlessly suppressed. This, however, should not be confused as Sunni-Shi'a conflict, since Saddam, himself, was secular, and being autocratic ruler he suppressed every potential opposition. He was equally ruthless to Sunni Kurds, although Sunni Arabs escaped his wrath by submitting to him.

The Sunni act of ostracizing however is turning out to have serious consequences for the political world as events in Iraq continue to unfold. Iraq is poised to become the first Shi'a ruled state in the Arab world, and Shi'a Iran has shown no hesitation in trying to support Iraq in this way, filling in the vacuum left by Sunni Arab countries.

Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi has quoted Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in various occasions in statements he made especially the infamous statement that urged his followers to kill shi'a of Iraq, for their religious affiliation. Recently a series of planned terrorist explosions attributed to Zarqawi killed 170 Iraqi Shi'ite Muslims and injured 500 others in a single day, in what is known as Ashoura massacre.

Malaysia

File:Descrimination against the shia.jpg
In this letter from the Islamic University of Malaysia, the university is denying employment to a person based on what it claims to be government policy "against employing staff from a particular denomination, Shiite". Other sources present similar accounts of discrimination in Malaysia.[1]

Other

Elsewhere in the Arab world, the Shia, though not openly persecuted, are often subject to thinly-veiled persecution, particularly in Bahrain, where the generally poorer Shi'a majority is ruled by a wealthy Sunni elite without deference to their numerical superiority. (ibid. chap1)


Internet

Many other extremist Sunnis have waged a virtual war of information on the internet against the Shi'a, with the Salafis and Saudi Arabia as the major sponsors of this movement.[15] Examples:

  • It is the belief of all the shias that... Allah often lies and does mistakes.allaahuakbar.net
  • Shi'ism and Islam are indeed different religions..ahya.org
  • Shiaism (The Rafidah) and Islam are indeed different religions. This sect has developed into what we now know as the Shia whose beliefs and thoughts are repugnant beyond belief. allaahuakbar.net
  • The religious beliefs and practices of SHI'AS differentiate and segregate them from the entire Muslim Ummah...Contrary to the universal and basic teachings of monotheistic religion, Shi'ism teaches... allaahuakbar.net
  • The protracted contrariety between Islam and Shi'ism is but a clear reflection of fundamental differences between the two. The only common denominator between Islam and Shi'ism is the Islamic Kalimah. The rest of Shi'ism has very little in common with mainstream Islam. The unbridgeable divide between the two is entrenched in some of the core fundamentals of this sect... alinaam.org
  • Islam and Shi'ism are two parallel streams of thought that can never converge. They are as distinct from each other, as is Islam to the Ahlul-Kitaab.To ignore these differences is to ignore the stark reality.
  • The often repeated hallowed call for "Muslim Unity" simply serves as a smokescreen, behind which Shi'a missionaries penetrate Muslim societies. Any attempt to resist this imposition is branded as "divisive". Would it be divisive to protect Islam from a sect that inherently debases the Qur'an, the Anbiyaa, and the Sahaaba? alinaam.org

In some cases, Salafis have dedicated entire websites like ansar.org with the single purpose of attacking the Shias. Shias have answered with sites like answering-ansar.org

Improving relations

Modern Shia and Sunni communities are becoming less confrontational. Scholars such as Ali Husaini Sistani, Hassan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Allamah Mawdudi, Shaikh Muhammed Kashak, Allamah Sheikh Muhammed al Ghazali, Sheikh Muhmud Shaltut, Professor al Bahansawi, Altalmasani, Anwar al Jundi, Hassan Ayyub, Said Hawi, Fathi Yakun, Abu Zuhrah, Yusuf al Azm, Professor Rashid al Ghannachi among others have encouraged Sunni and Shia unity. Others have not. Yet within both sects, it has been stressed to seek unity among the faithful. Organizations such as the Shia Lebanese Hezbollah have been gaining respect among Sunnis and are seen as a credible resistance militia as well as a modern political party, often praised by all Lebanese sects, including Sunnis.

The renowned al-Azhar Theological school in Egypt, one of the main centers of Sunni scholarship in the world, announced the al-Azhar Shia Fatwa on July 6, 1959:

"The Shi'a is a school of thought that is religiously correct to follow in worship as are other Sunni schools of thought."

Al-Azhar later distanced itself from this position. Many Islamic groups also currently maintain this distance, regarding the Shia doctrine at best as fisq (transgression or severely deviated). (see query from Sunni Imam). Some, such as Mufti Afzal Hoosen Elias openly consider the Shia as "Kafir". [16] (another Sunni source)

Although the two communities have often remained separate, mingling regularly only during the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca, in some countries like Iraq, Syria, and Bahrain, some communities have mingled and intermarried. In addition, the Shias in Kuwait and pluralist Lebanon experience higher levels of tolerance and integration than in other Sunni-majority Arab countries.

References

  • The Arab Shia: The Forgotten Muslims, by Graham E. Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke. New York: Saint Martin's Press, 1999, ISBN 0-312-23956-4
  • Shi'a Islam, by Tabatabaei and Nasr, SUNY Press, 1979.

See also