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[[Wolfberry]] ([[wikt:枸杞子|枸杞子]]) is grown in the Far East and is grown from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually fresh and sometimes used when it is dried.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}
[[Wolfberry]] ([[wikt:枸杞子|枸杞子]]) is grown in the Far East and is grown from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually fresh and sometimes used when it is dried.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}


TCM Information: Gou Qi Zi. Pharmaceutical Name: Lycii Fructus. Quality: Sweet, Neutral. Meridians: Liver, Lung, Kidney. Actions: Tonifies kidney and lung yin, tonifies liver blood, tonifies jing, improves vision.<ref>Bensky, Dan (2004) Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica. Eastland Press, third edition, p. 761.</ref><ref>Traditional Chinese Medicine-Acupuncture-Herbs-Formulas (2002) http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/gouqizi-properties.htm</ref><ref>Beijing Digital Museum of TCM (2007) http://en.tcm-china.info/materia/single/single/75756.shtml</ref>
TCM Information: Pinyin: Gou Qi Zi. Common Name: Chinese Wolfberry. Pharmaceutical Name: Lycii Fructus. Quality: Sweet, Neutral. Meridians: Liver, Lung, Kidney. Actions: Tonifies kidney and lung yin, tonifies liver blood, tonifies jing, improves vision.<ref>Bensky, Dan (2004) Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica. Eastland Press, third edition, p. 761.</ref><ref>Traditional Chinese Medicine-Acupuncture-Herbs-Formulas (2002) http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/gouqizi-properties.htm</ref><ref>Beijing Digital Museum of TCM (2007) http://en.tcm-china.info/materia/single/single/75756.shtml</ref>


===Dang Gui===
===Dang Gui===

Revision as of 02:28, 26 April 2011

For non-Chinese traditions of herbology, see herbalism.
Dried herbs and plant portions for Chinese herbology at a Xi'an market

Chinese Herbology (simplified Chinese: 中药学; traditional Chinese: 中藥學; pinyin: zhōngyào xué) or 中药(zhōngyào), is the common name for the subject of Chinese materia medica [clarification needed]. It includes the basic theory of Chinese materia medica, "crude medicine," "prepared drug in slices" (simplified Chinese: 饮片; traditional Chinese: 飲片; pinyin: yǐnpiàn) and traditional Chinese patent medicines and simple preparations' source, collection and preparation, performance, efficacy, and clinical applications. Template:Contains Chinese text

Role in Chinese medicine

Ginger is consumed in China as food and as medicine.

Chinese materia medica (simplified Chinese: 中药; traditional Chinese: 中藥; pinyin: zhōngyào), is also the medicine based on traditional Chinese medicine theory. it includes Chinese crude medicine, prepared drug in slices of Chinese materia medica, traditional Chinese patent medicines and simple preparations, etc.

Herbology is one of the more important modalities utilized in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Each herbal medicine prescription is a cocktail of many herbs tailored to the individual patient. One batch of herbs is typically decocted twice over the course of one hour. The practitioner usually designs a remedy using one or two main ingredients that target the illness. Then the practitioner adds many other ingredients to adjust the formula to the patient's yin/yang conditions. Sometimes, ingredients are needed as it is believed that it will cancel out toxicity or side-effects of the main ingredients. Some herbs require the use of other ingredients as catalyst or else the brew is considered to be ineffective. The latter steps require great experience and knowledge, and make the difference between what is accepted as a good Chinese herbal doctor and an amateur. Unlike western medications, the balance and interaction of all the ingredients are considered more important than the effect of individual ingredients. A key to success in TCM is the treatment of each patient as an individual.

Chinese herbology often incorporates ingredients from all parts of plants, such as the leaf, stem, flower, root, and also ingredients from animals and minerals. The use of parts of endangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros horns, and tiger bones) has created controversy and resulted in a black market of poachers who hunt restricted animals. Many herbal manufacturers have discontinued the use of any parts from endangered animals.

Another difference between Chinese herbology and other traditional medical systems is its considerable use of marine products.

Chinese herbs are prepared in a number of ways. Raw herbs can be boiled and taken as a tea or decoction. Prepared Chinese herbs are sold as pills, tablets and capsules. Another preparation method is the extract form or tinctures in which small doses are taken from a dropper. In one type of preparation herbs are applied via a plaster, usually for pain.

History of Chinese herbology

Chinese pharmacopoeia

Chinese herbs have been used for centuries. The first herbalist in Chinese tradition is Shennong, a mythical personage, who is said to have tasted hundreds of herbs and imparted his knowledge of medicinal and poisonous plants to farmers. The first Chinese manual on pharmacology, the Shennong Bencao Jing (Shennong Emperor's Classic of Materia Medica), lists some 365 medicines of which 252 of them are herbs, and dates back somewhere in the 1st century CE Han dynasty. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by a manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the Mawangdui tomb, sealed in 168 BCE!

Succeeding generations augmented on this work, as in the Yaoxing Lun (simplified Chinese: 药性论; traditional Chinese: 藥性論; also spelled Yao Xing Lun; literally "Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs"), a 7th century Tang Dynasty Chinese treatise on herbal medicine.

Arguably the most important of these was the Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu) compiled during the Ming dynasty by Li Shizhen, which is still used today for consultation and reference.

The history of this literature is presented in Paul U. Unschuld's "Medicine in China: a History of Pharmaceutics"; Univ. of Calif. Press, 1986.

The Shen Nong's Herbal Classic, a 2000-year-old medicinal Chinese book considered today as the oldest book on oriental herbal medicine, classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine:

  • The first category, called "superior", includes herbs effective for multiple diseases and are mostly responsible for maintaining and restoring the body balance. They have almost no unfavorable side-effects.
  • The second category comprises tonics and boosters, for which their consumption must not be prolonged.
  • The third category must be taken, usually in small doses, and for the treatment of specific ailments only.

Lingzhi ranked number one of the superior medicines, and was therefore the most exalted medicine in ancient times.[1] The ancient Chinese use of medicinal mushrooms has inspired modern day research into mushrooms like shiitake, Agaricus blazei, Trametes versicolor, and lingzhi. Although a 2008 review by UC Davis concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to promote the use of mushrooms or mushroom extracts in the treatment of disease, it stressed the urgency of further research and future clinical trials due to large numbers of promising in vivo and in vitro experiments.[2]

Categorizing Chinese herbs

Chinese physicians used several different methods to classify traditional Chinese herbs:

  • The Four Natures (pinyin: sìqì; simplified Chinese: 四气; traditional Chinese: 四氣 or 四性)
  • The Five Tastes (五味; pinyin: wǔwèi)
  • The meridians (pinyin: jīngluò; simplified Chinese: 经络; traditional Chinese: 經絡)

The earlier (Han through Tang eras) Ben Cao (Materia Medicae) began with a three-level categorization:

  • Low level -- drastic acting, toxic substances;
  • Middle level -- medicinal physiological effects;
  • High level -- health and spirit enhancement

Dufuckingo-Confucian Song-Jin-Yuan era (10th to 12th centuries), the theoretical framework from acupuncture theory (which was rooted in Confucian Han theory) was formally applied to herbal categorization (which was earlier more the domain of Daoist natural science). In particular, alignment with the Five Phases (Wu Xing) and the 12 channels (meridian) theory came to be used after this period.

The Four Natures

This pertains to the degree of yin and yang, namely cold (extreme yin), cool, warm and hot (extreme yang). The patient's internal balance of yin and yang is taken into account when the herbs are selected. For example, medicinal herbs of "hot", yang nature are used when the person is thought to be suffering from internal cold that requires to be purged, or when the patient is believed to have a general cold constituency. Sometimes an ingredient is added to offset the extreme effect of one herb.

The Five Tastes

The five tastes are pungent(acrid), sweet, sour, bitter and salty, and each taste has a different set of functions and characteristics and are associated with different organ pairings. Both herbs and foods are categorized by the five flavors and are associated with the specific flavor functions.

Pungent herbs are used with the intention that they might induce sweating and to direct and vitalize qi and the blood, the flavor is associated with the lung and large intestine organs. Green onion and chives are examples of pungent foods. Sweet-tasting herbs are thought to tonify or harmonize bodily systems. Some sweet-tasting herbs also exhibit a bland taste, which helps drain dampness through diuresis. According to Chinese medical theory sweet flavor acts on the spleen and stomach. Sugar is a sweet food, another example is bananas. Practitioners believe that the sour taste most often is astringent or consolidates fluids or qi, and the flavor is associated with the liver and gallbladder. Lemons and plums would be examples of sour foods. Bitter taste is thought to drain heat, purge through the bowels and get rid of dampness by the action of drying, the flavor is associated with the heart and small intestine. Coffee and lettuce are examples of foods in the bitter category. Salty tastes are thought to soften hard masses as well as purge and open the bowels, this flavor is associated with the kidneys and bladder. Examples of salty foods are sea vegetables and table salt.

The Meridians

The meridians refer to the 12 standard meridians or channels in the body that herbs can act upon. The meridians of the body correspond to specific organs. For example, traditional beliefs hold that menthol is pungent, cool and goes to the lung and the liver channels. The lungs are the organ which protects the body from invasion from colds and influenza, the menthol can help cool the lungs and purge heat toxins caused by wind-heat invasion(a differential diagnosis for common cold).

Chinese patent medicine

Main article: Chinese patent medicine
File:ChinesePatent-PlumFlower.png
Characteristic little black pills of Chinese patent medicine

Chinese patent medicine (traditional Chinese: 中成藥, Simplified Chinese: 中成药, pinyin: zhōngchéng yào) is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine. They are standardized herbal formulas. From ancient times, pills were formed by combining several herbs and other ingredients, which were dried and ground into a powder. They were then mixed with a binder and formed into pills by hand. The binder was traditionally honey. Modern teapills however, are extracted in stainless steel extractors to create either a water decoction or water-alcohol decoction, depending on the herbs used. They are extracted at a low temperature (below 100 degrees Celsius) to preserve essential ingredients. The extracted liquid is then further condensed and some raw herb powder from one of the herbal ingredients is mixed in to form an herbal dough. This dough is then machine cut into tiny pieces, a small amount of excipients are added for a smooth and consistent exterior, and they are spun into pills. Teapills are characteristically little round black pills.

Chinese patent medicines are easy and convenient. They are not easy to customize on a patient-by-patient basis, however. They are often used when a patient's condition is not severe and the medicine can be taken as a long-term treatment.

These medicines are not patented in the traditional sense of the word. No one has exclusive rights to the formula. Instead, "patent" refers to the standardization of the formula. In China, all Chinese patent medicines of the same name will have the same proportions of ingredients, and manufactured in accordance with the PRC Pharmacopoeia, which is mandated by law. However, in western countries there may be variations in the proportions of ingredients in patent medicines of the same name, and even different ingredients altogether.

Herbs in use

The use of Chinese herbs is a very popular tradition. There are over three hundred herbs that are commonly being used today that have a history that goes back at least 2,000 years.

The most commonly used herbs are Ginseng (人参, 人參, rénshēn), wolfberry (枸杞子), Dong Quai (Angelica sinensis, 当归, 當歸, dāngguī), astragalus (黄耆, 黃耆, huángqí), atractylodes (白术, 白朮, báizhú), bupleurum (柴胡, cháihú), cinnamon (cinnamon twigs (桂枝, guìzhī) and cinnamon bark (肉桂, ròuguì)), coptis (黄莲, 黃蓮, huánglián), ginger (姜, 薑, jiāng), hoelen (茯苓, fúlíng), licorice (甘草, gāncǎo), ephedra sinica (麻黄, 麻黃, máhuáng), peony (white: 白芍, báisháo and reddish: 赤芍, chìsháo), rehmannia (地黄, 地黃, dìhuáng), rhubarb (大黄, 大黃, dàhuáng), and salvia (丹参, 丹參, dānshēn). These are just a few of the herbs.

Ginseng

Chinese red ginseng roots

The use of ginseng (人参) is well over two thousand years old in Chinese medicine. Ginseng contains ginsenosides. The amount of ginsenosides in ginseng depends on how the plant was cultivated and the age of the root. Wild ginseng is rare and commands the highest prices on the market, but most ginseng on the market today is a reasonable price. Red Panax ginseng is the most popular form of ginseng and it is usually packaged as a liquid or tea. Ginseng comes in two kinds, red and white. The color of the ginseng depends on how it is processed. White ginseng is unprocessed and dries naturally. Red ginseng is processed with steam and is believed to be more effective. Native Americans have used American ginseng for dry coughs, constipation and fevers. Distinction should be made between Chinese ginseng (panax ginseng, ren shen), Siberian ginseng (eleutherococcus senticosus, ci wu jia) and American ginseng (panax quinquefolius, xi yang shen). [citation needed]

Mushrooms

Main article: Medicinal mushrooms

Mushrooms have long been used as a medicinal food and as a tea in Chinese herbology. Clinical, animal, and cellular research has shown mushrooms may be able to up-regulate aspects of the immune system.[3][4][5][6] Notable mushrooms used in Chinese herbology include Reishi and Shiitake.

Wolfberry

Wolfberry (枸杞子) is grown in the Far East and is grown from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually fresh and sometimes used when it is dried.[citation needed]

TCM Information: Pinyin: Gou Qi Zi. Common Name: Chinese Wolfberry. Pharmaceutical Name: Lycii Fructus. Quality: Sweet, Neutral. Meridians: Liver, Lung, Kidney. Actions: Tonifies kidney and lung yin, tonifies liver blood, tonifies jing, improves vision.[7][8][9]

Dang Gui

Dang Gui (当归, Angelica sinensis or "female ginseng") is an aromatic herb that grows in China, Korea and Japan.[citation needed]

Astragalus

Astragalus (黄耆) is a root used for immune deficiencies and allergies.[citation needed]

Atractylodes

Atractylodes (白术) is believed to be important in the treatment of digestive disorders and problems of moisture accumulation.[citation needed]

Bupleurum

Bupleurum (柴胡) is believed to be useful for the treatment of liver diseases, skin ailments, arthritis, menopausal syndrome, withdrawal from corticosteroid use, nephritis, stress-induced ulcers, and mental disorders.[citation needed]

Cinnamon

Cinnamon (桂枝, 肉桂) or mostly known as gui zhi and rou gui are twigs and bark from large tropical trees.[citation needed]

Coptis chinensis

Coptis chinensis (黄莲) is a rhizome that is one of the bitterest herbs used in Chinese medicine.[citation needed]

Ginger

Ginger (干姜, 乾薑) is a herb and a spice that is used in Chinese cuisine. Commonly used to treat nausea. [citation needed]

Licorice

The use of licorice(甘草) is thought to help treat hepatitis, sore throat, and muscle spasms.[citation needed]

Ephedra

Ephedra (麻黄) is a stimulant herb.[citation needed]

Peony

Peony (白芍, 赤芍) comes in two varieties: bai shao(white) and chi shao (red), the root of the plant is used in both varieties.[citation needed]

Rehmannia

Rehmannia (地黄) is a root where the dark, moist part of the herb is used.[citation needed]

Rhubarb

Chinese rhubarb depicted by Michał Boym (1655)

Rhubarb (大黄) is a large root and was once one of the first herbs that was imported from China.[citation needed]

Salvia

Salvia (丹参) are the deep roots of the Chinese sage plant.[citation needed]

50 fundamental herbs

In Chinese herbology, there are 50 "fundamental" herbs, as given in the reference text,[10] although these herbs are not universally recognized as such in other texts. The herbs are:

Binomial nomenclature Chinese name English Common Name (when available)
Agastache rugosa[11] huò xiāng (藿香)[12] Korean Mint
Alangium chinense[13] bā jiǎo fēng (八角枫)[14]
Anemone chinensis (syn. Pulsatilla chinensis)[15] bái tóu weng (白头翁)[14][16]
Anisodus tanguticus shān làng dàng (山莨菪)[17]
Ardisia japonica zǐ jīn niú (紫金牛)[18]
Aster tataricus zǐ wǎn (紫菀)
Astragalus propinquus (syn. Astragalus membranaceus)[19] huáng qí (黄芪)[20] or běi qí (北芪)[20]
Camellia sinensis chá shù (茶树) or chá yè (茶叶) Tea Plant
Cannabis sativa dà má (大麻) Cannabis
Carthamus tinctorius hóng huā (红花)
Cinnamomum cassia ròu gùi (肉桂) Cassia, Chinese Cinnamon
Cissampelos pareira xí shēng téng (锡生藤) or (亞乎奴)
Coptis chinensis duǎn è huáng lián (短萼黄连)
Corydalis ambigua yán hú suǒ (延胡索)
Croton tiglium bā dòu (巴豆) Purging Croton
Daphne genkwa yuán huā (芫花)
Datura metel yáng jīn huā (洋金花)
Datura stramonium (syn. Datura tatula)[21] zǐ huā màn tuó luó (紫花曼陀萝) Jimson Weed
Dendrobium nobile shí hú (石斛) or shí hú lán (石斛兰)
Dichroa febrifuga[22] cháng shān (常山)
Ephedra sinica cǎo má huáng (草麻黄) Chinese ephedra
Eucommia ulmoides dù zhòng (杜仲)
Euphorbia pekinensis[23] dà jǐ (大戟) Peking spurge
Flueggea suffruticosa (formerly Securinega suffruticosa) yī yè qiū (一叶秋)[24]
Forsythia suspensa liánqiào (连翘)
Gentiana loureiroi dì dīng (地丁)
Gleditsia sinensis zào jiá (皂荚)
Glycyrrhiza uralensis gān cǎo (甘草)[25] Licorice
Hydnocarpus anthelminticus (syn. H. anthelminthica) dà fēng zǐ (大风子)
Ilex purpurea dōngqīng (冬青)
Leonurus japonicus yì mǔ cǎo (益母草)
Ligusticum wallichii[26] chuān xiōng (川芎) Szechuan lovage
Lobelia chinensis bàn biān lián (半边莲)
Phellodendron amurense huáng bǎi (黄柏) Amur cork tree
Platycladus orientalis (formerly Thuja orientalis) cèbǎi (侧柏) Chinese Arborvitae
Pseudolarix amabilis jīn qián sōng (金钱松) Golden Larch
Psilopeganum sinense shān má huáng (山麻黄)
Pueraria lobata gé gēn (葛根) Kudzu
Rauwolfia serpentina shégēnmù (蛇根木), cóng shégēnmù (從蛇根 木) or yìndù shé mù (印度蛇木)||
Rehmannia glutinosa dìhuáng (地黄) or gān dìhuáng (干地黄)[27]
Rheum officinale yào yòng dà huáng (药用大黄)
Rhododendron tsinghaiense Qīng hǎi dù juān (青海杜鹃)
Saussurea costus yún mù xiāng (云木香) Costus
Schisandra chinensis wǔ wèi zi (五味子)
Scutellaria baicalensis huáng qín (黄芩) Baikal Skullcap
Stemona tuberosa bǎi bù (百部)
Stephania tetrandra fáng jǐ (防己)
Styphnolobium japonicum (formerly Sophora japonica) huái (槐), huái shù (槐树), or huái huā (槐花) Pagoda Tree
Trichosanthes kirilowii guā lóu (栝楼) Chinese Cucumber
Wikstroemia indica liǎo gē wáng (了哥王) Indian stringbush

Other Chinese herbs

In addition to the above, many other Chinese herbs and other substances are in common use, and these include:

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Halpern, Georges, MD, PhD. "Medicinal Mushrooms Ancient Remedies for Modern Ailments". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Borchers AT, Krishnamurthy A, Keen CL, Meyers FJ, Gershwin ME (2008). "The immunobiology of mushrooms". Exp Biol Med. 233 (3): 259–76. doi:10.3181/0708-MR-227. PMID 18296732.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Lin ZB, Zhang HN (2004). "Anti-tumor and immunoregulatory activities of Ganoderma lucidum and its possible mechanisms". Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 25 (11): 1387–95. PMID 15525457. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Kuo MC, Weng CY, Ha CL, Wu MJ (2006). "Ganoderma lucidum mycelia enhance innate immunity by activating NF-kappaB". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 103 (2): 217–22. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.010. PMID 16169168. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Kobayashi H, Matsunaga K, Oguchi Y (1995). "Antimetastatic effects of PSK (Krestin), a protein-bound polysaccharide obtained from basidiomycetes: an overview". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 4 (3): 275–81. PMID 7606203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Hetland G, Johnson E, Lyberg T, Bernardshaw S, Tryggestad AM, Grinde B (2008). "Effects of the medicinal mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill on immunity, infection and cancer". Scand J Immunol. 68 (4): 363–70. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02156.x. PMID 18782264.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Bensky, Dan (2004) Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica. Eastland Press, third edition, p. 761.
  8. ^ Traditional Chinese Medicine-Acupuncture-Herbs-Formulas (2002) http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/gouqizi-properties.htm
  9. ^ Beijing Digital Museum of TCM (2007) http://en.tcm-china.info/materia/single/single/75756.shtml
  10. ^ Wong, Ming (1976). La Médecine chinoise par les plantes. Le Corps a Vivre series. Éditions Tchou.
  11. ^ "Agastache rugosa". Retrieved 2008-02-14. {{cite web}}: Text "Plants For A Future database report" ignored (help)
  12. ^ "Agastache rugosa in Flora of China @ efloras.org". Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  13. ^ "Alangium chinense". Plants for a Future. 2004. Retrieved 2008-02-05. {{cite web}}: Text "Plants For A Future database report" ignored (help)
  14. ^ a b "Alangium chinense in Flora of China @ efloras.org". Retrieved 2008-02-14.
  15. ^ "Anemone chinensis information from NPGS/GRIN". USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Retrieved 2008-02-05. {{cite web}}: Text "grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?404160" ignored (help)
  16. ^ "Anemone chinensis information from NPGS/GRIN". USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
  17. ^ "Anisodus tanguticus in Flora of China @efloras.org". Retrieved 2008-02-05.
  18. ^ Flora of China: Ardisia japonica
  19. ^ "Astragalus propinquus". ILDIS LegumeWeb. International Legume Database & Information Service. 2005-11-01. Retrieved 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Text "01-03" ignored (help)
  20. ^ a b "Huang qi, Complementary and Alternative Healing University". Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  21. ^ "Datura stramonium information from NPGS/GRIN". Retrieved 2008-02-05. {{cite web}}: Text "grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?13323" ignored (help)
  22. ^ "Dichroa febrifuga". Retrieved 2008-02-05. {{cite web}}: Text "Plants For A Future database report" ignored (help)
  23. ^ "Euphorbia pekinensis". Retrieved 2008-02-05. {{cite web}}: Text "Plants For A Future database report" ignored (help)
  24. ^ "Securinega suffruticosa - Plants For A Future database report". Retrieved 2008-02-06.
  25. ^ "Glycyrrhiza uralensis - Plants For A Future database report". Retrieved 2008-02-08.
  26. ^ "Ligusticum wallichii". Retrieved 2008-02-21. {{cite web}}: Text "Plants For A Future database report" ignored (help)
  27. ^ Rehmannia glutinosa
  28. ^ http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_ind.nsf/d2769881999f47b3482564840019d2f9/75693bae1ea33cd3482567fa00292a6a?OpenDocument

General references

  • Wong, Ming (1976). La Médecine chinoise par les plantes. Le Corps a Vivre series. Éditions Tchou.
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