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[[Image:Vilnius StNicholas Orthodox church.jpg|thumb|350px|[[St._Paraskeva_Church,_Vilnius|Church of St. Parakeva Piatka]] in [[Vilna]] — one of [[Vilna]]'s oldest churches, founded by [[Olgerd]]'s wife Maria around 1345.]]
[[file:Serres IM Prodromou Andronicos.jpg|thumb|Fresco of Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]], who established the Metropolitanate of Lithuania, which was later regarded as an "anomaly" in the Byzantine policies]]
The '''Metropolitanate of Lithuania''' was a [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitanate]] of the [[Orthodox Church]] in the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] in 14th - 16th centuries. Created between 1300 and 1317<ref name="Gelzer H 1900">Gelzer H. Ungedruckte und ungenugend veroffentlichte Texte der Notitiae Episcopatuum, ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Kirchen — und Verwaltungsgeschichte. // Munchen, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Hist., l, Abhandlungen, XXI, 1900, Bd. III, ABTH</ref><ref name=Pavlov>Павлов А.С. О начале Галицкой и Литовской митрополий и о первых тамошних митрополитах по византийским документальным источникам ХIV в. 40 стр. // Русское обозрение. 1894. кн. 5 (май). с. 236—241.</ref><ref>Шевченко И. И. Некоторые замечания о политике Константинопольского патриархата по отношению к Восточной Европе в XIV в. // Славяне и их соседи. Вып. 6. Греческий и славянский мир в средневековье и раннее новое время. Москва, 1996. с. 134—135.</ref><ref name=r156>Rowell (1994), p. 156</ref>, it was already by 1352 merged with Kiev dioceses into the "Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate" with metropolitans having the title of "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" unregularly in 1352-1419 and regularly since 1458.
⚫
The '''Metropolitanate of Lithuania''' was a short-lived [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitanate]] of the [[Orthodox Church]] in the 14th century. Created between 1315 and 1317,<ref name=r156>Rowell (1994), p. 156</ref> it had only two metropolitans and was discontinued in 1371. Its establishment was part of the Lithuanian entry into the rivalry for the religious control of the [[Rus' principalities]] between [[Galicia–Volhynia]], the [[Tver|Principality of Tver]], and the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]], seat of the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], generally preferred a united [[Metropolitanate of Kiev and all Rus']] and was reluctant to divide its authority. Therefore whenever possible, the Byzantium would unite the metropolitanates. Facing opposition to actual physical division of the metropolitanates, the Lithuanians employed additional tactics: promotion of their own candidates to the seat of Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. By the 1440s however, the final years of the Byzantine Empire, the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] had effectively won the dispute and became the new spiritual center of the Orthodox tradition in Eastern Europe.

⚫
Its establishment was part of the Lithuanian entry into the rivalry for the religious control of the [[Rus' principalities]] between [[Galicia–Volhynia]], the [[Tver|Principality of Tver]], and the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]], seat of the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], generally preferred a united [[Metropolitanate of Kiev and all Rus']] and was reluctant to divide its authority. Therefore whenever possible, the Byzantium would unite the metropolitanates. Facing opposition to actual physical division of the metropolitanates, the Lithuanians employed additional tactics: promotion of their own candidates to the seat of Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. By the 1440s however, the final years of the Byzantine Empire, the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] had effectively won the dispute and became the new spiritual center of the Orthodox tradition in Eastern Europe.


==Establishment==
==Establishment==
[[Image:Saint Boris and Gleb Church in Navahrudak.JPG|thumb|350px|St. Borys and Hleb Church in [[Navahrudak|Navahradak]] of 12th-16th centuries. It was a seat of Lithuanian Metropolitanate councils in 14-15 centuries.]]
The [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] expanded east at the expense of Slavic Orthodox principalities of the former [[Kievan Rus']]. While adhering to the [[Lithuanian mythology|pagan faith]], Grand Dukes [[Vytenis]] and [[Gediminas]] understood the political importance of controlling the church. At the time [[Metropolitan Peter|Peter]], the [[Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus']], supported by [[Galicia–Volhynia]], rivaled with [[Mikhail Yaroslavich]], [[Prince of Tver]], who wanted to replace Peter with his own candidate.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 152</ref> As a result of this dispute, the seat of the metropolitanate was moved to Moscow.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 154</ref> Lithuania had a rather friendly relationship with Tver and perhaps the new metropolitanate was a way to support Mikhail Yaroslavich in his struggle with Metropolitan Peter, whose income was cut and authority in all of Rus' challenged.<ref name=r157>Rowell (1994), p. 157</ref> The [[Byzantine Empire]], afraid of the growing influence of local dukes, generally promoted church unity within the Rus', hoping that a strong united patriarch would be able to resist political intrigues.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 170</ref> Therefore it is unclear why it agreed to establish a new metropolitanate; later the Byzantine authorities regarded it as an "anomaly" or the "result of confusion."<ref name=r163/> Possibly, Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]], involved in wars with the [[Ottoman Empire]] over [[Asia Minor]], needed military and financial assistance, both of which Lithuania could provide.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 157–158</ref> The emperor established the metropolitanate while [[Patriarch John XIII of Constantinople|Patriarch John XIII]] [[ordained]] the prelate.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), p. 95</ref>
The [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] already in the 13th century included many Slavic Orthodox principalities of the former [[Kievan Rus']]. Grand Dukes [[Vytenis|Viten]] and [[Gedimin]] understood the political importance of controlling the church. The catalog of Constantinople dioceses by Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] shows, that the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was created in 1300<ref name="Gelzer H 1900">Gelzer H. Ungedruckte und ungenugend veroffentlichte Texte der Notitiae Episcopatuum, ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Kirchen — und Verwaltungsgeschichte. // Munchen, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Hist., l, Abhandlungen, XXI, 1900, Bd. III, ABTH</ref><ref name=Pavlov>Павлов А.С. О начале Галицкой и Литовской митрополий и о первых тамошних митрополитах по византийским документальным источникам ХIV в. 40 стр. // Русское обозрение. 1894. кн. 5 (май). с. 236—241.</ref><ref>Шевченко И. И. Некоторые замечания о политике Константинопольского патриархата по отношению к Восточной Европе в XIV в. // Славяне и их соседи. Вып. 6. Греческий и славянский мир в средневековье и раннее новое время. Москва, 1996. с. 134—135.</ref><ref name=r156>Rowell (1994), p. 156</ref>. Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] emperor established the metropolitanate while [[Patriarch John XIII of Constantinople|Patriarch John XIII]] [[ordained]] the prelate.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), p. 95</ref>

==Before autocephaly of 1415==
⚫
The Metropolitanate of Lithuania, with [[episcopal see]] in [[Navahrudak|Navahradak]], had two [[suffragan bishop]]s in [[Turov]] and [[Polatsk]]<ref name=r156/>. From 1300 to 1330 it seems that there was only one metropolitan bishop, Theophilus<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 159</ref>. A surviving list of his property shows that Theophilus traveled extensively around the Rus' principalities and presented expensive gifts to prominent rulers of the region,<ref name=r161>Rowell (1994), p. 161</ref> perhaps as part of a campaign to become the Metropolitan of Kiev. After Moscow Metropolitan Peter's death in 1326 however, Theophilus and a candidate presented by Moscow were rejected by Constantinople as too political.<ref name=r161/> Instead, they appointed independent [[Theognostus]] as the new Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. When Theophilus died in 1330, Theognostus succeeded in restoring unity in the Rus':<ref>Meyendorff (1989), pp. 155–156</ref> claiming that there were too few Christians in Lithuania, the seat of the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was left vacant.<ref>Rowell (1994), pp. 162–163</ref> In case a need would arise in future, a new metropolitan could be appointed.<ref name=r163>Rowell (1994), p. 163</ref> In the meanwhile Theognostus would have authority over all Rus' and Lithuania.

⚫
In 1352, Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Olgerd]] promoted his own candidate Teodoryt to the see of Kiev and all Rus'. When he failed to gain support in Byzantium, Teodoryt turned to the schismatic [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], received ordination there, and ruled Kiev and Lithuania for two years (till 1354); even [[Novgorod]] bishop Moses waived in his loyalty to Moscow Metropolitan and was close to accepting Teodoryt's authority.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), pp. 164–165</ref> Such actions may indicate that Olgerd envisioned an [[autocephalous]] church of Lithuania, having ordination from Bulgarian [[Trnovo]] Patriarchate, probably in union with Serbia.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), p. 165</ref> The angered Byzantines forced Algirdas to change his tactics. He now supported Roman, a monk from Tver and his wife's relative [[Uliana of Tver|Uliana]], and even promised to convert to Orthodoxy in exchange for ordination of Roman.<ref>Majeska (1984), pp. 388–389</ref> [[Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Callistus I]], rivaled by [[Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople|Philotheus Kokkinos]], agreed and ordained Roman as Metropolitan of Lithuania in 1355.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 165</ref>

[[Image:Vilnius HMG Orthodox church.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Cathedral_of_the_Theotokos,_Vilnius|Cathedral of Theotokos]] in [[Vilna]], founded by Grand Duke [[Olgerd]] in 1346. Since 1415, it was the seat of Metropolitane of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'<ref>Вялікае княства Літоўскае: Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. т. 1. – Мінск: БелЭН, 2006. с. 433.</ref>.]]
Roman attempted to assert his authority over all Slavic lands of the Grand Duchy, even though they were contested by Moscow Metropolitan [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow|Alexius]]<ref name=r166>Rowell (1994), p. 166</ref>. In 1356, after diplomatic struggles, Callistus I united the Metropolitanates of Lithuania and Galicia under Roman, while Alexius retained his title.<ref name=r166/> The rivalry continued however until Roman's death in 1362, when Lithuania–Galicia were placed under control of Alexius.<ref>Majeska (1984), p. 389</ref>

In 1375, [[Olgerd]] successfully promoted his candidate [[Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow|Cyprian]] for the title of "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" while Alexius was still alive.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 167</ref> In February 1378, after Aleius' death, Cyprian was ordained in Constantinople and acted as "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" for two years (till summer 1380). Later he moved to Moscow becoming Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus', while Lithuania started introducing Catholicism after Krevo Union of 1385.


==After autocephaly of 1415==
==Metropolitan Theophilus (ca. 1317–1330)==
In 1415, Grand Duke [[Vitaut]] re-establish the Metropolitanate of Lithuania as autocephalous Metropolitanate of both Lithuania and Kiev, with Metropolitan's seat in [[Vilna]], and promoted [[Gregory Tsamblak]].<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 168</ref> The rivalry between Lithuania and Moscow for the see of Kiev ended in 1458 with Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate proclaimed independent from Moscow and retaining the title of Metropolitanate "of Kiev and all Rus'". The seat of Metropolitans of "Kiev and all Rus'" was situated in [[Vilna]] [[Cathedral_of_the_Theotokos,_Vilnius|Cathedral of Theotokos]] since 1415 till 1596<ref>Вялікае княства Літоўскае: Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. т. 1. – Мінск: БелЭН, 2006. с. 433.</ref>.
⚫
The Metropolitanate of Lithuania, with [[episcopal see]] in [[Navahrudak]], had two [[suffragan bishop]]s in [[Turov]] and [[Polatsk]].<ref name=r156/> From 1317 to 1330 it seems that there was only one metropolitan bishop, Theophilus, of [[Rus' (people)|Rus']] origin.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 159</ref> A surviving list of his property shows that Theophilus traveled extensively around the Rus' principalities and presented expensive gifts to prominent rulers of the region,<ref name=r161>Rowell (1994), p. 161</ref> perhaps as part of a campaign to become the Metropolitan of Kiev. After Peter's death in 1326 however, Theophilus and a candidate presented by Moscow were rejected by Constantinople as too political.<ref name=r161/> Instead, they appointed independent [[Theognostus]] as the new Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. When Theophilus died in 1330, Theognostus succeeded in restoring unity in the Rus':<ref>Meyendorff (1989), pp. 155–156</ref> claiming that there were too few Christians in pagan Lithuania, the seat of the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was left vacant.<ref>Rowell (1994), pp. 162–163</ref> In case a need would arise in future, a new metropolitan could be appointed.<ref name=r163>Rowell (1994), p. 163</ref> In the meanwhile Theognostus would have authority over all Rus' and Lithuania.


In 16th century the Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate embraced nine dioceses: of Polatsk, Turov, Smolensk, Chernigov, Galich, Peremyshl, Kholm, Lutsk, and Vladimir (Volynsky).
==Metropolitan Roman (1355–1362)==
⚫
After Theognostus' death in 1353, at first Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Algirdas]] did not attempt to revive the Metropolitanate of Lithuania, but promoted his own candidate Teodoryt to the see of Kiev and all Rus'. When he failed to gain support in Byzantium, Teodoryt turned to the schismatic [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]] and received ordination there.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), pp. 164–165</ref> Such actions may indicate that Algirdas envisioned an [[autocephalous]] church of his own.<ref>Meyendorff (1989), p. 165</ref> The angered Byzantines forced Algirdas to change his tactics. He now supported Roman, a monk from Tver and relative of Algirdas' wife [[Uliana of Tver|Uliana]], and even promised to convert to Orthodoxy in exchange for ordination of Roman.<ref>Majeska (1984), pp. 388–389</ref> [[Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Callistus I]], rivaled by [[Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople|Philotheus Kokkinos]], agreed and ordained Roman as Metropolitan of Lithuania in 1355.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 165</ref>


Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate discontinued in 1596, in the course of [[Union of Brest]].
Roman attempted to assert his authority over all Slavic lands of the Grand Duchy, even though they belonged to the Metropolitanate of Kiev and all Rus', whose patriarch [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow|Alexius]] resided in Moscow.<ref name=r166>Rowell (1994), p. 166</ref> In 1356, after diplomatic struggles, Callistus I united the Metropolitanates of Lithuania and Galicia under Roman, while Alexius retained his title.<ref name=r166/> The rivalry continued however until Roman's death in 1362, when Lithuania–Galicia were placed under control of Alexius.<ref>Majeska (1984), p. 389</ref> In 1371, the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was officially lowered to the rank of bishopric and placed under jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'.<ref name=r166/> However, it did not end the political rivalry for religious influence in Rus'. Algirdas successfully promoted his candidate [[Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow|Cyprian]] while Alexius was still alive.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 167</ref> In 1415, Grand Duke [[Vytautas]] attempted to re-establish the Metropolitanate of Lithuania and promoted [[Gregory Tsamblak]].<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 168</ref> The rivalry effectively ended in 1448 when Moscow began electing the patriarchs independently without approval from the Byzantium, which collapsed in 1453.<ref>Rowell (1994), p. 169</ref>


==References==
==References==
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[[Category:1310s establishments]]
[[Category:1310s establishments]]
[[Category:1371 disestablishments]]
[[Category:1596 disestablishments]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania (1219–1569)]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania (1219–1569)]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox metropolitans]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox metropolitans]]

Revision as of 14:33, 25 May 2011

Church of St. Parakeva Piatka in Vilna — one of Vilna's oldest churches, founded by Olgerd's wife Maria around 1345.

The Metropolitanate of Lithuania was a metropolitanate of the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 14th - 16th centuries. Created between 1300 and 1317[1][2][3][4], it was already by 1352 merged with Kiev dioceses into the "Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate" with metropolitans having the title of "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" unregularly in 1352-1419 and regularly since 1458.

Its establishment was part of the Lithuanian entry into the rivalry for the religious control of the Rus' principalities between Galicia–Volhynia, the Principality of Tver, and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Byzantine Empire, seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, generally preferred a united Metropolitanate of Kiev and all Rus' and was reluctant to divide its authority. Therefore whenever possible, the Byzantium would unite the metropolitanates. Facing opposition to actual physical division of the metropolitanates, the Lithuanians employed additional tactics: promotion of their own candidates to the seat of Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. By the 1440s however, the final years of the Byzantine Empire, the Grand Duchy of Moscow had effectively won the dispute and became the new spiritual center of the Orthodox tradition in Eastern Europe.

Establishment

St. Borys and Hleb Church in Navahradak of 12th-16th centuries. It was a seat of Lithuanian Metropolitanate councils in 14-15 centuries.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania already in the 13th century included many Slavic Orthodox principalities of the former Kievan Rus'. Grand Dukes Viten and Gedimin understood the political importance of controlling the church. The catalog of Constantinople dioceses by Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos shows, that the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was created in 1300[1][2][5][4]. Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos emperor established the metropolitanate while Patriarch John XIII ordained the prelate.[6]

Before autocephaly of 1415

The Metropolitanate of Lithuania, with episcopal see in Navahradak, had two suffragan bishops in Turov and Polatsk[4]. From 1300 to 1330 it seems that there was only one metropolitan bishop, Theophilus[7]. A surviving list of his property shows that Theophilus traveled extensively around the Rus' principalities and presented expensive gifts to prominent rulers of the region,[8] perhaps as part of a campaign to become the Metropolitan of Kiev. After Moscow Metropolitan Peter's death in 1326 however, Theophilus and a candidate presented by Moscow were rejected by Constantinople as too political.[8] Instead, they appointed independent Theognostus as the new Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. When Theophilus died in 1330, Theognostus succeeded in restoring unity in the Rus':[9] claiming that there were too few Christians in Lithuania, the seat of the Metropolitanate of Lithuania was left vacant.[10] In case a need would arise in future, a new metropolitan could be appointed.[11] In the meanwhile Theognostus would have authority over all Rus' and Lithuania.

In 1352, Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd promoted his own candidate Teodoryt to the see of Kiev and all Rus'. When he failed to gain support in Byzantium, Teodoryt turned to the schismatic Bulgarian Orthodox Church, received ordination there, and ruled Kiev and Lithuania for two years (till 1354); even Novgorod bishop Moses waived in his loyalty to Moscow Metropolitan and was close to accepting Teodoryt's authority.[12] Such actions may indicate that Olgerd envisioned an autocephalous church of Lithuania, having ordination from Bulgarian Trnovo Patriarchate, probably in union with Serbia.[13] The angered Byzantines forced Algirdas to change his tactics. He now supported Roman, a monk from Tver and his wife's relative Uliana, and even promised to convert to Orthodoxy in exchange for ordination of Roman.[14] Patriarch Callistus I, rivaled by Philotheus Kokkinos, agreed and ordained Roman as Metropolitan of Lithuania in 1355.[15]

Cathedral of Theotokos in Vilna, founded by Grand Duke Olgerd in 1346. Since 1415, it was the seat of Metropolitane of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'[16].

Roman attempted to assert his authority over all Slavic lands of the Grand Duchy, even though they were contested by Moscow Metropolitan Alexius[17]. In 1356, after diplomatic struggles, Callistus I united the Metropolitanates of Lithuania and Galicia under Roman, while Alexius retained his title.[17] The rivalry continued however until Roman's death in 1362, when Lithuania–Galicia were placed under control of Alexius.[18]

In 1375, Olgerd successfully promoted his candidate Cyprian for the title of "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" while Alexius was still alive.[19] In February 1378, after Aleius' death, Cyprian was ordained in Constantinople and acted as "Metropolitan of Lithuania, Kiev and all Rus'" for two years (till summer 1380). Later he moved to Moscow becoming Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus', while Lithuania started introducing Catholicism after Krevo Union of 1385.

After autocephaly of 1415

In 1415, Grand Duke Vitaut re-establish the Metropolitanate of Lithuania as autocephalous Metropolitanate of both Lithuania and Kiev, with Metropolitan's seat in Vilna, and promoted Gregory Tsamblak.[20] The rivalry between Lithuania and Moscow for the see of Kiev ended in 1458 with Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate proclaimed independent from Moscow and retaining the title of Metropolitanate "of Kiev and all Rus'". The seat of Metropolitans of "Kiev and all Rus'" was situated in Vilna Cathedral of Theotokos since 1415 till 1596[21].

In 16th century the Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate embraced nine dioceses: of Polatsk, Turov, Smolensk, Chernigov, Galich, Peremyshl, Kholm, Lutsk, and Vladimir (Volynsky).

Lithuanian-Kievan Metropolitanate discontinued in 1596, in the course of Union of Brest.

References

Notes
  1. ^ a b Gelzer H. Ungedruckte und ungenugend veroffentlichte Texte der Notitiae Episcopatuum, ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen Kirchen — und Verwaltungsgeschichte. // Munchen, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Hist., l, Abhandlungen, XXI, 1900, Bd. III, ABTH
  2. ^ a b Павлов А.С. О начале Галицкой и Литовской митрополий и о первых тамошних митрополитах по византийским документальным источникам ХIV в. 40 стр. // Русское обозрение. 1894. кн. 5 (май). с. 236—241.
  3. ^ Шевченко И. И. Некоторые замечания о политике Константинопольского патриархата по отношению к Восточной Европе в XIV в. // Славяне и их соседи. Вып. 6. Греческий и славянский мир в средневековье и раннее новое время. Москва, 1996. с. 134—135.
  4. ^ a b c Rowell (1994), p. 156
  5. ^ Шевченко И. И. Некоторые замечания о политике Константинопольского патриархата по отношению к Восточной Европе в XIV в. // Славяне и их соседи. Вып. 6. Греческий и славянский мир в средневековье и раннее новое время. Москва, 1996. с. 134—135.
  6. ^ Meyendorff (1989), p. 95
  7. ^ Rowell (1994), p. 159
  8. ^ a b Rowell (1994), p. 161
  9. ^ Meyendorff (1989), pp. 155–156
  10. ^ Rowell (1994), pp. 162–163
  11. ^ Rowell (1994), p. 163
  12. ^ Meyendorff (1989), pp. 164–165
  13. ^ Meyendorff (1989), p. 165
  14. ^ Majeska (1984), pp. 388–389
  15. ^ Rowell (1994), p. 165
  16. ^ Вялікае княства Літоўскае: Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. т. 1. – Мінск: БелЭН, 2006. с. 433.
  17. ^ a b Rowell (1994), p. 166
  18. ^ Majeska (1984), p. 389
  19. ^ Rowell (1994), p. 167
  20. ^ Rowell (1994), p. 168
  21. ^ Вялікае княства Літоўскае: Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. Энцыклапедыя ў 2 тамах. т. 1. – Мінск: БелЭН, 2006. с. 433.
References
  • Majeska, George P. (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0884021017.
  • Meyendorff, John (1989). Byzantium and the Rise of Russia: a Study of Byzantino-Russian Relations in the Fourteenth Century. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0881410799.
  • Rowell, S. C. (1994). Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521450119.
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