Sutton Hoo

The restored ceremonial helmet is one of the most iconic finds from Sutton Hoo

Part of the burial ground at Sutton Hoo

Sutton Hoo from the Deben tideway with Mound 2 visible on the horizon above the farm

Sutton Hoo, near to Woodbridge, in the English county of Suffolk, is the site of two sixth and early seventh century cemeteries. One contained an undisturbed ship burial including a wealth of Anglo-Saxon artefacts of outstanding art-historical and archaeological significance, which are now held in the British Museum in London. Other sites before then had already produced significant finds, but many had been looted.

Sutton Hoo is of a primary importance to early medieval historians because it sheds light on a period of English history which is on the margin between myth, legend and historical documentation. Use of the site culminated at a time when Rædwald, the ruler of East Anglia, held senior power among the English people, and played a dynamic if ambiguous part in the establishment of Christian rulership in England; it is generally thought most likely that he is the person buried in the ship. The site has been vital in understanding the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of East Anglia and the whole early Anglo-Saxon period.

The ship-burial, probably dating from the early 7th century and excavated in 1939, is one of the most magnificent archaeological finds in England for its size and completeness, far-reaching connections, the quality and beauty of its contents, and for the profound interest of the burial ritual itself. The initial excavation was privately sponsored by the landowner, but when the significance of the find became apparent, national experts took over. Subsequent archaeological campaigns, particularly in the late 1960s and late 1980s, have explored the wider site and many other individual burials. The most significant artefacts from the ship-burial, displayed in the British Museum, are those found in the burial chamber, including a suite of metalwork dress fittings in gold and gems, a ceremonial helmet, shield and sword, a lyre, and many pieces of silver plate from the Eastern Roman Empire. The ship-burial has from the time of its discovery prompted comparisons with the world described in the heroic Old English poem Beowulf, which is set in southern Sweden. It is in that region, especially at Vendel, that close archaeological parallels to the ship-burial are found, both in its general form and in details of the military equipment that the burial contains.

Although it is the ship-burial which commands the greatest attention from tourists, there is also rich historical meaning in the two separate cemeteries, their position in relation to the Deben estuary and the North Sea, and their relation to other sites in the immediate neighbourhood. Of the two gravefields found at Sutton Hoo, one (the 'Sutton Hoo cemetery') had long been known to exist because it consists of a group of around 20 earthen burial mounds which rise slightly above the horizon of the hill-spur when viewed from the opposite bank. The other, called here the "new" burial ground, is situated on a second hill-spur close to the present Exhibition Hall, about 500 m upstream of the first, and was discovered and partially explored in 2000 during preparations for the construction of the hall. This also had burials under mounds, but was not known because they had long since been flattened by agricultural activity. The site has a visitor's centre, with many original and replica artefacts and a reconstruction of the ship burial chamber, and the burial field can be toured in the summer months.

Location

The Wicklaw region

Sutton Hoo is the name of an area spread along the bank of the River Deben opposite the harbour of the small Suffolk town of Woodbridge. About 7 miles (11 km) from the sea, it overlooks the tidal estuary a little below the lowest convenient fording place. It formed a path of entry into East Anglia during the period that followed the end of Roman imperial rule in the 5th century.

South of Woodbridge, there are 6th century burial grounds at Rushmere, Little Bealings and Tuddenham St Martin, and circling Brightwell Heath, the site of mounds that date from the Bronze Age. There were cemeteries of similar date at Rendlesham and Ufford. A ship-burial in the large cemetery at Snape is the only one in England that is comparable to the example at Sutton Hoo.

The territory between the Orwell and the watersheds of the Alde and Deben rivers may have been an early centre of royal power, originally centred upon Rendlesham or Sutton Hoo, and a primary component in the formation of the East Anglian kingdom: in the early 7th century, Gipeswic (modern Ipswich) began its growth as the primary centre for foreign trade, Botolph's monastery at Iken was founded by royal grant in 654 and Bede identified Rendlesham as the site of Æthelwold's vicus regius (royal dwelling).

Prehistoric settlement

Neolithic and Bronze Age

There is evidence that Sutton Hoo was occupied during the Neolithic period, circa 3000 BCE, when the woodland in the Deben Valley area had been cleared by early agriculturalists. They dug small pits, whose contents included flint-tempered earthenware pots. Several pits were near to hollows where large trees had been uprooted, archaeologist Martin Carver to speculate that the Neolithic farmers may have associated the hollows with the pots.

During the Bronze Age, when agricultural communities living in Britain adopted the newly-introduced technology of metalworking, timber-framed roundhouses were built at Sutton Hoo, with wattle and daub walling and thatched roofs. The best surviving example, found beneath Mound 2, contained only a ring of upright posts, up to 30 millimetres (1.2 in) in diameter, with one pair suggesting an entrance to the south-east. In the central hearth, a coloured faience bead had been dropped. The farmers who dwelt in this house used decorated Beaker-style pottery, cultivated barley, oats and wheat, and collected wild hazelnuts. They were responsible for creating ditches that marked out the surrounding grassland into sections, indicating land ownership. The acidic sandy soil eventually become leached and infertile and it was likely that for this reason the settlement was eventually abandoned, to be replaced in the Middle Bronze Age (1500-1000 BCE) by sheep or cattle, that were enclosed by wooden stakes.

Iron Age and Romano-British period

During the Iron Age, iron became the dominant form of metal used in the British Isles, replacing copper and bronze. In the Middle Iron Age (around 500 BCE), people living in the Sutton Hoo area began to grow crops again, dividing the land up into small enclosures now known as Celtic fields. Although archaeologists have failed to determine exactly what crops were grown, the use of narrow trenches implies grape cultivation, whilst in other places, small pockets of dark soil indicate that big cabbages were grown.

Such cultivation continued into the Romano-British period, from 43 CE to around 410 CE, when southern Britain was a part of the Roman Empire. Life for the Britons remained unaffected by the arrival of the Romans. Archeaologists have found several artefacts from this period, including a few fragments of pottery and a fibula, which had been left on fields. As the peoples of western Europe were encouraged by the Empire to maximise the use of land for growing crops, the area around Sutton Hoo suffered degradation and soil loss, and was again eventually abandoned, after which turf, scrub and trees regrew, so that by the Early Anglo-Saxon period the area had become a wilderness.

Anglo-Saxon cemetery

Background

Main articles: Burial in Early Anglo-Saxon England and Kingdom of East Anglia

The kingdom of East Anglia during the early Anglo/Angle-Saxon period, with Sutton Hoo in the south-eastern area near to the coast

Following the withdrawal of the Romans from southern Britain after 410, the remaining population slowly adopted the language, customs and beliefs of Germanic tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Much of the process may have been due to cultural appropriation, due to a widespread migration into Britain, although the people that arrived may have been relatively small in numbers and aggressive towards the local populations they encountered.

The Anglo-Saxons developed cultural traits that differed from those of the Iron Age and Romano-British periods. Their language developed into Old English, a Germanic language that was different to the languages previously spoken in Britain, and were pagans, following a polytheistic religion. Differences in their daily material culture changed, as they stopped living in roundhouses and constructed rectangular timber homes similar to those found in Denmark and northern Germany. Their jewellery began to exhibit the increasing influence of Migration Period Art from continental Europe.

During this period, southern Britain became divided up into a number of small independent kingdoms. Several pagan cemeteries from the kingdom of the East Angles have been found, most notably at Spong Hill and Snape, where a large number cremations and inhumations were found. Many of the graves were accompanied by grave goods, which included combs, tweezers and brooches, as well as weapons. Sacrificed animals had been placed in the graves.

At the time when the Sutton Hoo cemetery was in use, the River Deben would have formed part of a busy trading and transportation network. A number of settlements grew up along the river, most of which would have been small farmsteads, although it seems likely that there was a larger administrative centre as well, where the local aristocracy held court. Archaeologists have speculated that such a centre may have existed at Rendlesham, Melton, Bromeswell or at Sutton Hoo. It has been suggested that when wealthier families buried their dead in burial mounds, these were later used as sites for early churches. In such cases the mounds would have been destroyed.

The Sutton Hoo gravefield contained about twenty barrows and was reserved for people who were buried individually with objects that indicated that they had exceptional wealth or prestige. It was used in this way for from around 575 to 625 and contrasts with the Snape cemetery, where the ship-burial and furnished graves were added to a graveyard of buried pots containing cremated ashes.

Mound 11 (front left), Mound 10 (foreground, masking Mound 1), Mound 2 (middle distance) and Sutton Hoo House

The cremation graves and inhumations, Mound 17 and Mound 14

Mound 17 (orange), Mound 14 (purple), inhumations (green) and cremation graves (blue) at Sutton Hoo

Carver believes that the cremation burials at Sutton Hoo were "among the earliest" in the cemetery. Two were excavated in 1938. Under Mound 3 was the ashes of a man and a horse placed on a wooden trough or dugout bier, a Frankish iron-headed throwing-axe and imported objects from the eastern Mediterranean, including the lid of a bronze ewer, part of a miniature carved plaque depicting a winged Victory and fragments of decorated bone from a casket. Under Mound 4 was the cremated remains of a man and a woman, with a horse and perhaps also a dog, as well as fragments of bone gaming-pieces.

In Mounds 5, 6 and 7, Carver found cremations deposited in bronze bowls. In Mound 5 were found gaming-pieces, small iron shears, a cup and an ivory box. Mound 7 also contained gaming-pieces, as well as an iron-bound bucket, a sword-belt fitting and a drinking vessel, together with the remains of horse, cattle, red deer, sheep and pig that had been had been burnt with the deceased on a pyre. Mound 6 contained cremated animals, gaming-pieces, a sword-belt fitting and a comb. The Mound 18 grave was very damaged, but of similar kind. Two cremations were found during the 1960s exploration to define the extent of Mound 5, together with two inhumations and a pit with a skull and fragments of decorative foil. In level areas between the mounds, Carver found three furnished inhumations. One small mound held a child's remains, along with his buckle and miniature spear. A man's grave included two belt-buckles and a knife, and that of a woman contained a leather bag, a pin and a chatelaine.

Finds from Mound 17

The most impressive of the burials without a chamber is that of a young man and his horse, found in Mound 17. The horse would have been sacrificed for the funeral, in a ritual sufficiently standardised to indicate a lack of sentimental attachment to it. Two undisturbed grave-hollows existed side-by-side under the mound. The man's oak coffin, contained his pattern welded sword on his right and his sword-belt, wrapped around the blade, which had a bronze buckle with garnet cloisonné cellwork, two pyramidal strapmounts and a scabbard-buckle. By the man's head was a firesteel and a leather pouch, containing rough garnets and a piece of millefiori glass. Around the coffin were two spears, a shield, a small cauldron and a bronze bowl, a pot, an iron-bound bucket and some animal ribs. In the north-west corner of his grave was a bridle, mounted with circular gilt bronze plaques withinterlace ornamentation. These items are on display at Sutton Hoo.

Inhumation graves of this kind are known from both England and Germanic Europe, with most dating from the 6th or early 7th century. In about 1820, an example was excavated at Witnesham (near Ipswich). There are other examples at Lakenheath in western Suffolk and in the Snape cemetery: other examples have been inferred from records of the discovery of horse furniture at Eye and Mildenhall.

Although grave under Mound 14 had been destroyed almost completely by robbing, apparently during a heavy rainstorm, it had contained exceptionally high quality goods belonging to a woman. These included a chatelaine, a kidney-shaped purse lid, a bowl, several buckles, a dress-fastener and the hinges of a casket, all made of silver, and also a fragment of embroidered cloth.

Mound 2

Mound 2 is the only Sutton Hoo tumulus to have been reconstructed to its estimated original height

This important grave, much damaged by looters, was probably the source of the many iron ship-rivets found at Sutton Hoo in 1860. In 1938, the mound was excavated by Basil Brown, who found iron rivets within it. Using his knowledge of the Snape burial, he interpreted the Mound 2 grave as a small boat with a square stern. Carver's re-investigation revealed that there was a rectangular plank-lined chamber, 5 metres (16 ft) long by 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) wide, sunk below the land surface, with the body and grave-goods laid out in it. A small ship had been placed over this in an east–west alignment, before a large earth mound was raised.

Chemical analysis of the chamber floor has suggested the presence of a body in the south-western corner. The goods found included fragments of a blue glass cup with a trailed decoration, similar to the recent find from the Royal Saxon tomb in Prittlewell, Essex. There were two gilt-bronze discs with animal interlace ornament, a bronze brooch, a silver buckle and a gold-coated stud from a buckle. Four objects had a special kinship with the Mound 1 finds: the tip of a swordblade showed elaborate pattern-welding; silver-gilt drinking horn-mounts (struck from the same dies as those in Mound 1; and the similarity of two fragments of dragon-like mounts or plaques. Although the rituals were not identical, the association of the contents of the grave shows a connection between the two burials.

The execution burials

'Sand body' preserved for museum display

The cemetery also contained a number of inhumations of people who had died by violent means, in some cases by hanging or beheading. Often the bones had not survived, but the fleshy parts of the bodies had stained the sandy soil: the soil was laminated as work progressed, so that the emaciated figures of the dead could be revealed. Casts were taken of several of these tableaux.

The identification and discussion of these burials was led by Carver. Two main groups were excavated, with one arranged around Mound 5 and the other situated beyond the barrow cemetery limits in the field to the east. It is thought that a gallows once stood on Mound 5, in a prominent position near to a significant river-crossing point, and that the graves contained the bodies of criminals, possibly executed from the 8th and 9th centuries onwards.

The new gravefield

In 2000, a Suffolk County Council team excavated the site intended for the National Trust's new visitor centre, north of Tranmer House, at a point where the ridge of the Deben valley veers westwards to form a promontory. When the topsoil was removed, early Anglo-Saxon burials were discovered in one corner, with some possessing high status objects. The area had first attracted attention with the discovery of part of a 6th century bronze vessel, of eastern Mediterranean origin, which had probably formed part of a furnished burial. The outer surface of the so-called 'Bromewell bucket' was decorated with a Syrian or Nubian style frieze, depicting naked warriors in combat with leaping lions, and had an inscription in Greek which translated as 'Use this in good health, Master Count, for many happy years'.

In an area near to Mrs Pretty's former rose garden, a group of moderate-sized burial mounds was identified. They had long since been levelled, but their position was shown by circular ditches that each enclosed a small deposit indicating the presence of a single burial, probably of unurned human ashes. One burial lay in an irregular ovate pit which contained two vessels, a stamped black earthenware urn of late 6th century type and a well-preserved large bronze hanging bowl, with openwork hook escutcheons (without enamel) and a related circular mount at the centre of the bowl. In another burial, a man had been laid next to his spear and covered with a shield of normal size. The shield bore an ornamented boss-stud and two fine metal mounts, ornamented with a predatory bird and a dragon-like creature.

Mound 1

The ship-burial discovered under Mound 1 in 1939 contained one of the most magnificent archaeological finds in England for its size and completeness, far-reaching connections, the quality and beauty of its contents, and for the profound interest it generated.

The burial

Mound 1 (in red) within the burial ground (possible burial mounds are coloured grey)

Model of the ship's structure as it might have appeared, with chamber area outlined

Although practically none of the original timber survived, the form of the ship was perfectly preserved. Stains in the sand had replaced the wood but had preserved many construction details. Nearly all of the iron planking rivets were in their original places. It was possible to survey the original ship, which was found to be 27 metres (89 ft) long, pointed at either end with tall rising stem and stern posts and widening to 4.4 metres (14 ft) in the beam amidships with an inboard depth of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) over the keel line. From the keel board the hull was constructed clinker-fashion with nine planks on either side, fastened with rivets. Twenty-six wooden frames strengthened the form. Repairs were visible: this had been a sea-going vessel of excellent craftsmanship, but there was no descending keel. The decking, benches and mast were removed. In the fore and aft sections, there were thorn-shaped oar-rests along the gunwales, indicating that there may have been positions for forty oarsmen. The central chamber had timber walls were at either end and a roof, which was probably pitched.

The heavy oak vessel had been hauled from the river up the hill and lowered into a prepared trench, so only the tops of the stem and stern posts rose above the land surface. After the addition of the body and the artefacts, an oval mound was constructed which covered the ship and rose above the horizon at the riverward side of the cemetery. The view to the river is now obscured by Top Hat Wood, but the mound would have been a visible symbol of power to those using the waterway. This appears to have been the final occasion upon which the Sutton Hoo cemetery was used for its original purpose.

Long afterwards, the roof collapsed violently under the weight of the mound, compressing the ship's contents into a seam of earth.

The body in the ship-burial

As a body was not found, there was early speculation that the ship-burial was a cenotaph, but soil analyses conducted in 1967 found phosphate traces, supporting the view that a body had disappeared in the acidic soil. The presence of a platform (or a large coffin) that was about 9 feet (2.7 m) long was indicated. An iron-bound wooden bucket and an iron lamp containing beeswax and a bottle of north continental were close by. The objects around the body indicate that it lay with the head at the west end of the wooden structure.

Artefacts near the body have been identified as regalia, pointing to it being that of a king. Most of the suggestions for the occupant are East Anglian kings, because of the proximity of the royal vill of Rendlesham. Since 1940, when H.M. Chadwick first ventured that the ship-burial was probably the grave of Rædwald, scholarly opinion divided between Raedwald and his son (or step-son) Sigeberht. The man who was buried under Mound 1 cannot be identified, but the identification with Rædwald still has widespread scholarly acceptance, though from time to time other identifications are suggested, including his son Eorpwald of East Anglia, who succeded his father in about 624. Rædwald is the most likely of the candidates because of the high quality of the imported and commissioned materials and the resources needed to assemble them, the authority that the gold was intended to convey, the community involvement required to conduct the ritual at a cemetery reserved for an elite, the close proximity of Sutton Hoo to Rendlesham and the probable date-horizons.

The objects in the burial chamber

David M. Wilson has remarked that the metal artworks found in the Sutton Hoo graves were "work of the highest quality, not only in English but in European terms".

Sutton Hoo is a cornerstone of the study of art in Britain in the 6th–9th centuries. George Henderson has described the ship treasures as "the first proven hothouse for the incubation of the Insular style". The gold and garnet fittings show the creative fusion of earlier techniques and motifs by a master-goldsmith. Insular art drew upon Irish, Pictish, Anglo-Saxon, native British and Mediterranean artistic sources: the 7th century Book of Durrow owes as much to Pictish sculpture, British millefiori and enamelwork and Anglo-Saxon cloisonné metalwork, as it does to Irish art. The Sutton Hoo treasures represent a continuum from pre-Christian royal accumulation of precious objects from diverse cultural sources, through to the art of gospel books, shrines and liturgical or dynastic objects.

The head area: the helmet, bowls and spoons

A full reconstruction of the Sutton Hoo helmet

On the head's left side was placed a 'crested' and masked helmet, wrapped in cloths. With its panels of tinned bronze and assembled mounts the decoration is directly comparable to that found on helmets from the Vendel and Valsgärde cemeteries of eastern Sweden. The Sutton Hoo helmet differs from the Swedish examples in having an iron skull of a single vaulted shell and has a full face mask, a solid neck guard and deep cheekpieces. These features have suggested an English origin for the basic structure of the helmet; the deep cheekpieces have parallels in the Coppergate helmet, found in York. Although outwardly very like the Swedish examples, the Sutton Hoo helmet is a product of better craftsmanship. Helmets are extremely rare finds. No other such figural plaques are known in England, apart from a fragment from a burial at Caenby, Lincolnshire. The helmet rusted in the grave and was shattered into hundreds of tiny fragments when the chamber roof collapsed. Restoration of the helmet thus involved the meticulous identification, grouping and orientation of the surviving fragments before it could be reconstructed.

To the head's right was placed inverted a nested set of ten silver bowls, probably made in the Eastern Empire during the sixth century. Beneath them were two silver spoons, possibly from Byzantium, of a type bearing names of the Apostles. One spoon is marked in original nielloed Greek lettering with the name of PAULOS, 'Paul'. The other, matching spoon has been modified using lettering conventions of a Frankish coin-die cutter, to read SAULOS, 'Saul'. One theory suggests that the spoons (and possibly also the bowls) were a baptismal gift for the buried person.

The weapons on the right side of the body

On the right of the 'body' lay a set of spears, tips uppermost, including three barbed angons, with their heads thrust through a handle of the bronze bowl. Nearby was a wand with a small mount depicting a wolf. Closer to the body lay the sword with a gold and garnet cloisonné pommel 85 centimetres (33 in) long, its pattern-welded blade still within its scabbard, with superlative scabbard-bosses of domed cellwork and pyramidal mounts. Attached to this and lying towards the body was the sword harness and belt, fitted with a suite of gold mounts and strap-distributors of extremely intricate garnet cellwork ornament.

Purse, shoulder-clasps and great buckle (upper body area)

Great Buckle

Together with the sword harness and scabbard mounts, the gold and garnet objects found in the upper body space are among the true wonders of Sutton Hoo. Their artistic and technical quality is quite exceptional. They form a co-ordinated ensemble thought to have been produced for this wearer as patron.

The "great" gold buckle is made in three parts. The plate is a long ovoid of meandering but symmetrical outline with densely interwoven and interpenetrating Style II ribbon animals rendered in chip-carving on the front. The gold surfaces are punched to receive niello detail. The plate is hollow and has a hinged back, forming a secret chamber possibly for a relic. Both the tongue-plate and hoop are solid, ornamented, and expertly engineered. Garnet is not employed in this object.

Shoulder-clasps

Each shoulder-clasp consists of two matching curved halves, hinged upon a long removable chained pin. The surfaces display panels of interlocking stepped garnets and chequer millefiori insets, surrounded by interlaced ornament of Germanic Style II ribbon animals. The half-round clasp ends contain garnet-work of interlocking boars with filigree surrounds. On the underside of the mounts are lugs for attachment to a stiff leather cuirass. The function of the clasps is to hold together the front and back halves of such armour so that it can fit the torso closely in the Roman manner. The cuirass itself, possibly worn in the grave, did not survive. No other Anglo-Saxon cuirass clasps are known.

The purse, with ornamental lid covering a lost leather pouch, hung from the waist-belt. The lid consists of a kidney-shaped cellwork frame enclosing a sheet of horn, on which were mounted pairs of exquisite garnet cellwork plaques depicting predatory birds, wolves devouring men, geometric motifs, and a double panel showing horses or animals with interlaced extremities. The maker derived these images from the ornament of the Swedish-style helmets and shield-mounts. In his work they are transferred into the cellwork medium with dazzling technical and artistic virtuosity.

These are therefore the work of a master-goldsmith of his age who had access to an East Anglian armoury containing the objects used as pattern sources. As an ensemble they enabled the patron to appear in an imperial persona, and expressed his authority and resources to do so. [[Image:Sutton.Hoo.PurseLid.RobRoy.jpg|thumb|right|Purse lid

The purse contained 37 gold shillings or tremisses, each from a different Frankish mint and therefore deliberately formed as a collection. There were also three blank coins and two small ingots. This has prompted various explanations. Possibly like the Roman "obolus" they were to pay the forty ghostly oarsmen in the afterworld, or were a funeral tribute, or an expression of allegiance. They provide the (debated) primary evidence for the date of the burial, probably in the third decade of the 7th century.

The lower body and 'Heaps' areas

In the area corresponding to the lower legs of the body were laid out various drinking vessels, including a pair of drinking horns made from the horns of an aurochs, extinct since early mediaeval times. These have matching die-stamped gilt rim mounts and vandykes, of similar workmanship and design to the shield mounts, and exactly similar to the surviving horn vandykes from Mound 2. In the same area stood a set of maplewood cups with similar rim-mounts and vandykes, and a heap of folded textiles lay on the left side.

A large quantity of material including metal objects and textiles was formed into two folded or packed heaps on the east end of the central wooden structure. This included the extremely rare survival of a long coat of ring-mail, made of alternate rows of welded and riveted iron links, two hanging bowls, leather shoes, a cushion stuffed with feathers, folded objects of leather and a wooden platter. At one side of the heaps lay an iron hammer-axe with a long iron handle, possibly a weapon.

On top of the folded heaps was set a fluted silver dish with drop handles, probably of Italian make, with the relief image of a female head in late Roman style worked into the bowl. This contained a series of small burr-wood cups with rim-mounts, combs of antler, small metal knives, a small silver bowl, and various other small effects (possibly toilet equipment), and including a bone gaming-piece, thought to be the "king piece" from a set. (Traces of bone above the head position have suggested that a gaming-board was possibly set out, as at Taplow.) Above these was a silver ladle with gilt chevron ornament, also of Mediterranean origin.

Over the whole of this, perched on top of the heaps, or their container, if there was one, lay a very large round silver platter with chased ornament, made in the Eastern Empire in around 500 AD and bearing the control stamps of Emperor Anastasius I (491–518). On this plate was deposited a piece of unburnt bone of uncertain derivation. The assemblage of Mediterranean silverware in the Sutton Hoo grave is unique for this period in Britain and Europe.

The west and east walls

The shield-fittings reassembled

Along the inner west wall (i.e. the head end) at the north-west corner stood a tall iron stand with a grid near the top. Beside this rested a very large circular shield. The central boss was mounted with garnets and with die-pressed plaques of interlaced animal ornament. The shield front displayed two large emblems with garnet settings, one a composite metal predatory bird and the other a long gilt casting of a flying dragon. It also bore animal-ornamented sheet strips directly die-linked to examples from the early cemetery at Vendel near Old Uppsala in Sweden. A small bell, possibly for an animal (?hound), lay nearby.

At the centre of the wall was a long square-sectioned whetstone tapered at either end and carved with human faces on each side. A ring mount topped by a bronze antlered stag figurine was fixed to the upper end, theorised to have been made to resemble a late Roman consular sceptre. The sceptre has resulted in some debate and an amount of theories, some of which pointing to the potential Anglo-Saxon religious significance of the stag. South of this was an iron-bound wooden bucket, one of several in the grave.

In the south-west corner was a complex containing objects which may have hung upon the chamber wall, but were found compressed together. Lowest was a Coptic or eastern Mediterranean bronze bowl with drop handles and chased with figures of animals. Above this was a badly deformed six-stringed Anglo-Saxon lyre in a beaver-skin bag, of a Germanic type found in wealthy Anglo-Saxon and north European graves of this date. Uppermost was a large and exceptionally elaborate three-hooked hanging bowl of Insular production, with champleve enamel and millefiori mounts showing fine-line spiral ornament and red cross motifs, and with an enamelled metal fish mounted to swivel on a pin within the bowl.

At the east end of the chamber, near the north corner, stood an iron-bound tub of yew with a smaller bucket within. To the south were two small bronze cauldrons, one globular and one concave-sided, probably hanging against the wall. A large carinated bronze cauldron, similar to the example from a chamber-grave at Taplow, with iron mounts and two ring-handles was hung by one handle at the centre. Nearby lay an iron chain almost 3.5 m long of complex ornamental sections and wrought links, for the suspension of such a cauldron from the beams of a large hall. The chain was the product of a British tradition dating back to pre-Roman times. All these items were of a domestic character.

Textiles

The burial chamber was evidently rich in textiles, represented by many fragments preserved, or replaced by metal corrosion products. They included quantities of twill, possibly from cloaks, blankets or hangings, and the remains of cloaks with characteristic long-pile weaving. There appear to have been more exotic coloured hangings or spreads, including some (possibly imported) woven in stepped lozenge patterns using a Syrian technique in which the weft is looped around the warp to create a textured surface. Two other colour-patterned textiles, near the head and foot of the body area, resemble Scandinavian work of the same period.

Comparisons

Similarities with Swedish burials

[[Image:Bild 946.jpg|thumb|A Swedish shield from Vendel]]

Helmet from the 7th century ship burial at Vendel

In 1881-1883 a series of excavations by Hjalmar Stolpe revealed 14 graves in the village of Vendel in eastern Sweden. Several of the burials were contained in boats up to 9 metres (30 ft) long and were furnished with swords, shields, helmets and other items. In 1828, another gravefield containing princely burials was discovered at Valsgärde. The pagan custom of furnished burial may have reached a natural culmination as Christianity began to make its mark. The Vendel and Valsgärde graves also included ships, similar artefact groups and many sacrificed animals. Ship-burials for this period are largely confined to eastern Sweden and East Anglia. The earlier mound-burials at Old Uppsala, in the same region, have a more direct bearing on the Beowulf story, but do not contain ship-burials. The famous Gokstad and Oseberg ship-burials are of a later date.

The inclusion of drinking-horns, lyre, sword and shield, bronze and glass vessels is typical of high-status chamber-graves in England. The similar selection and arrangement of the goods in these graves indicates a conformity of household possessions and funeral customs between people of this status, with the Sutton Hoo ship-burial being a uniquely-elaborated version, of exceptional quality. Unusually, Sutton Hoo included regalia and instruments of power and had direct Scandinavian connections. A possible explanation for such connections lies in the well-attested northern custom by which the children of leading men were often raised away from home by a distinguished friend or relative. A future East Anglian king, whilst being fostered in Sweden, could have acquired high quality objects and made contact with armourers, before returning to East Anglia to rule.

Carver argues that pagan East Anglian rulers would have responded to the growing encroachment of Roman Christendom by employing ever more elaborate cremation rituals, so expressing defiance and independence. The execution victims, if not sacrificed for the ship-burial, perhaps suffered for their dissent from the cult of Christian royalty: their executions may coincide in date with the period of Mercian hegemony over East Anglia in about 760–825.

Connections with Beowulf

Beowulf, the epic poem written in Old English and set in Denmark and Sweden (mostly Götaland) during the first half of the 6th century. It opens with the funeral of a king in a ship laden with treasure and has other descriptions of hoards, including Beowulf's own mound-burial. Its picture of warrior life in the hall of the Danish Scylding clan, with formal mead-drinking, minstrel recitation to the lyre and the rewarding of valour with gifts, and the description of a helmet, could all be illustrated from the Sutton Hoo finds. The interpretation of each has a bearing on the other, and the east Sweden connections with the Sutton Hoo material reinforce this link.

Sam Newton draws together the Sutton Hoo and Beowulf links with the Raedwald identification, and using genealogical data argues that the Wuffing dynasty derived from the Geatish Wulfing house mentioned in Beowulf and the poem Widsith. Possibly the oral materials from which Beowulf was assembled belonged to East Anglian royal tradition, and they and the ship-burial took shape together as heroic restatements of migration-age origins.

Excavations

Prior to 1939

In mediaeval times the westerly end of the mound was dug away and a boundary ditch was laid out. Therefore when looters dug into the apparent centre during the sixteenth century they missed the real centre: nor could they have foreseen that the deposit lay very deep in the belly of a buried ship, well below the level of the land surface.

From the 16th century, the burial ground's visible mounds experienced diggings: in the 16th century, a pit, dated by bottle shards left at the bottom, had been sunk at the apparent centre of Mound 1, narrowly missing the real centre and the burial deposit. The area was explored extensively during the 19th century, when a small viewing platform was constructed, but no useful records were made. In 1860 it was reported that nearly two bushels of iron screw bolts, presumably ship rivets, had been found at the recent opening of a mound, and that it was hoped to open others.

Basil Brown and Charles Phillips: 1938-1939

The site of Sutton Hoo had been arable land in the 19th century. In 1910, a mansion with fifteen bedrooms was built a short distance from the mounds and in 1926 the mansion and its land was purchased by Colonel Frank Pretty, a retired military officer who had recently married. In 1934, Pretty died, leaving a widow Edith May Pretty and young son. Following her bereavement, Mrs Pretty became interested in Spiritualism, a religion that placed belief in the idea that the spirits of the deceased could be contacted. Some of her Spiritualist friends claimed to have seen "shadowy figures" around the mounds at dusk and one had a vision of a man on a white horse there. Pretty's nephew, a dowser, repeatedly detected the presence of buried gold from what is now known to be the ship-mound, reflecting a claim around 1900 by an elderly resident of Woodbridge, of "untold gold" lying under the Sutton Hoo mounds.

Such occurrences caught Mrs Pretty's interest and, having some prior understanding of archaeology, (her father had excavated a Cistercian monastery at Vale Royal in Cheshire many years before), in 1937 she decided to organise an excavation of the mounds. Through the Ipswich Museum, she obtained the services of Basil Brown, a self-taught Suffolk archaeologist who had taken up full-time investigations of Roman sites for the museum. In June 1938, Pretty took Brown to the site, offering him accommodation and a wage of 30 shillings a week, and suggested that he start digging at Mound 1, one of the largest. Because the mound had been disturbed by earlier grave diggers, Brown, in consultation with the Ipswich Museum, decided instead to open three smaller mounds (2, 3 and 4). These only revealed fragmented artefacts, as the mounds had been robbed of valuable items. In Mound 2 he found iron ship-rivets and a disturbed chamber burial that contained unusual fragments of metal and glass artefacts. At first it was undecided as to whether they werer Early Anglo-Saxon or Viking objects. The Ipswich Museum then became involved with the excavations: all the finds became part of the museum's collection.

In May 1939, Brown began work on Mound 1, helped by Pretty's gamekeeper and gardener. He drove a trench from the east end and discovered ship-rivets in position. The colossal size of the find became apparent. After several weeks of patiently removing earth from the ship's hull they reached the previously undisturbed burial chamber.

A ghost image of the buried ship was revealed during excavations in 1939

The following month, Charles Phillips of Cambridge University, having heard rumours of a ship discovery. He was taken to Sutton Hoo by Mr Maynard, the Ipswich Museum curator, and was staggered by what he saw. Within a short time, following discussions with the Ipswich Museum, the British Museum, the Science Museum, and Office of Works, Phillips had taken over responsibility for the excavation of the burial chamber. Initially, Phillips and the British Museum instructed Brown to cease excavating until they could get their team assembled, but Brown ignored this, continuing his own independent work at the site, something which may have saved it from being looted by treasure hunters. Phillips' team included W.F. Grimes and O.G.S. Crawford of the Ordnance Survey, Peggy and Stuart Piggott, and other friends and colleagues.

The need for secrecy and various vested interests led to confrontation between Phillips and the Ipswich Museum. In 1935–6 Phillips and his friend Grahame Clark had taken control of the society. The curator, Mr Maynard then turned his attention to developing Brown's work for the museum. Phillips, who was hostile towards the museum's honorary president, Reid Moir, F.R.S., had now reappeared, and he deliberately excluded Moir and Maynard from the new discovery at Sutton Hoo. After Ipswich Museum prematurely announced the discovery, reporters attempted to access the site, so Mrs Pretty paid for two policemen to guard the site 24 hours a day.

The finds, having been packed and removed to London, were brought back for a treasure trove inquest held that autumn at Sutton village hall, where it was decided that since the treasure was buried without the intention to recover it, it was the property of Mrs Pretty as landowner. Pretty decided to bequeath the treasure as a gift to the nation, so that the meaning and excitement of her discovery could be shared by everyone.

When war broke out in September 1939, the grave-goods were put in storage. Sutton Hoo was used as a training ground for military vehicles. Phillips and colleagues produced important publications in 1940.

Rupert Bruce-Milford: 1965-1971

Following Britain's victory in 1945, the Sutton Hoo artefacts were removed from storage by Rupert Bruce-Mitford, an assistant keeper in the British Museum's Department of British and Medieval Antiquities. After examining each piece and determined their nature, his team helped to reconstruct and replicate the sceptre and helmet and also performed tests on the various materials. They oversaw the conservation of the artefacts to protect them from further degradation and allow them to go on public display.

From analysing the data collected in the 1938-39 excavations, Bruce-Milford concluded that there were still unanswered questions. His interest in excavating previously unexplored areas of the Sutton Hoo site led to a second archaeological investigation being organised. In 1965, the British Museum put together an archaeological team, led by Bruce-Milford, later described by Carver as being on a "truly impressive scale". The excavation lasted from 1965 to 1971, when Bruce-Milford personally oversaw the ship-burial site, which had not been backfilled by the excavators in the 1930s. The ship impression was again exposed and a plaster cast taken from it. A fibre-glass shape was then produced. The mound was restored to its pre-1939 appearance. The limits of Mound 5 were determined and evidence of prehistoric activity on the original land-surface was investigated by Ian Longworth. The British Museum Conservation team (under Harold Plenderleith, Herbert Maryon and Nigel Williams) scientifically analysed and reconstructed some of the finds. Bruce-Mitford's definitive text, The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial, published in three volumes in 1975, 1978 and 1983, dealt with the ship burial, the regalia and the other artefacts.

Martin Carver: 1983-1992

Recent excavations revealed a figure that had been rolled into a shallow grave

In 1978 a committee was formed in order to mount a third, and even larger excavation at Sutton Hoo. Backed by the Society of Antiquaries of London, the committee proposed an investigation to be led by Philip Rahtz from the University of York and Rupert Bruce-Milford. The British Museum expressed its reservations about a new investigation and so the committee instead decided to collaborate with the Ashmolean Museum. The committee recognised that much had changed in archaeology since the early 1970s. The Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher had introduced policies of privatisation, which signalled a decrease in state support for such projects, whilst the emergence of post-processualism in archaeological theory changed many archaeologists from having an interest in royalty to focussing on concepts such as social change. The Ashmolean's involvement convinced the British Museum and the Society of Antiquaries to help fund the project and a director was sought to run the excavation. In 1982, Martin Carver from the University of York was appointed. His research design aimed at exploring "the politics, social organisation and ideology" of Sutton Hoo.

The project was opposed by those who thought that the money for the excavation could be better used for rescue archaeology, but nonetheless in 1983 it went ahead. Carver believed that one of the aims of the project would be to restore the site, as much of it had become overgrown and riddled with rabbit warrens. The site was surveyed and new techniques were developed. Topsoil was stripped across an area that included Mounds 2, 5, 6, 7, 17 and 18. A new map of soil patterns and intrusions showed that these mounds had been sited in relation to prehistoric and Roman enclosure patterns. Anglo-Saxon graves of execution victims were found which were determined to be younger than the primary mounds. Mound 2 was re-explored and afterwards reconstructed to its estimated Anglo-Saxon form. Mound 17, a previously undisturbed burial, was found to contain a young man along with his weapons and goods, next to a separate grave that contained a horse.

The publication of the project's findings was completed in 2005. A substantial part of the gravefield has been left undisturbed and has been reserved for the benefit of future investigators and as yet unknown scientific methods.

Exhibition

The recreated burial-ship at Sutton Hoo

The ship-burial treasure was presented to the nation by the owner, Mrs Pretty, and was at the time the largest gift made to the British Museum by a living donor. The principal items are now permanently on display at the British Museum. A display of the original finds excavated in 1938 from Mounds 2, 3 and 4, and replicas of the most important items from Mound 1, can be seen at the Ipswich Museum.

In the 1990s, the Sutton Hoo site, including Sutton Hoo House, was given to the English National Trust by the Trustees of the Annie Tranmer Trust. The Visitor Centre and Exhibition Hall at Sutton Hoo were opened in March 2002, where the newly-found hanging bowl and the Bromeswell Bucket, finds from the equestrian grave and a recreation of the burial chamber and its contents can be seen.

See also

• Royal Saxon tomb in Prittlewell
• Staffordshire Hoard

Bibliography

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• C.W. Phillips, T.D. Kendrick, E. Kitzinger, O.G.S. Crawford, W.F. Grimes and H.M. Chadwick, The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial (Antiquity, March 1940).
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External links

• The offical Sutton Hoo, at the National Trust website.
• 'Sutton Hoo: the Grandest Anglo-Saxon Burial of All', from Current Archaeology online magazine November 17, 2002.
• 'Sutton Hoo:Burial Ground of the Wuffings', by Sam Newton.
• The Sutton Hoo Society website
• BBC Look East news clip on the recreated burial ship at Sutton Hoo. Retrieved 16 July 2011.