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Both [[NASA]] ([[Controlled Ecological Life Support System|CELSS]])<ref>''Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential.'' Normal, Al.: Alabama A&M University, 1988.</ref> and the [[European Space Agency]] ([[MELISSA]])<ref>Cornet J.F., Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem." Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24–26, 1990</ref> proposed Spirulina as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions.
Both [[NASA]] ([[Controlled Ecological Life Support System|CELSS]])<ref>''Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential.'' Normal, Al.: Alabama A&M University, 1988.</ref> and the [[European Space Agency]] ([[MELISSA]])<ref>Cornet J.F., Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem." Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24–26, 1990</ref> proposed Spirulina as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions.


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*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']

*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
*[http://www.sifaalg.com/ ''Sifaalg.com International Shipping Spirulina'']
*[http://www.egert.com.tr/ ''Biggest Egert Spirulina Farm In Turkey'']
*[http://www.spirulina.com.tr/ ''Most Quality and Pure Spirulina'']
*[http://www.e-spirulina.com/ ''WorldWide Shipping Free Spirulina'']
==See also==
==See also==
*[[Algaculture]] - commercial farming of algae
*[[Algaculture]] - commercial farming of algae

Revision as of 23:10, 2 August 2011

Spirulina tablets

Spirulina is a human and animal food or nutritional supplement made primarily from two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

Arthrospira is cultivated around the world, used as a human dietary supplement, as well as a whole food, and is available in tablet, flake and powder form. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium and poultry industries.[1]

Etymology

These maxima and platensis species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. There is now agreement that they are in fact Arthrospira; nevertheless, and somewhat confusingly, the older term Spirulina remains in use for historical reasons.[1][2]

Ecology

Main article: Arthrospira

Arthrospira are free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. They occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate. Arthrospira platensis occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas Arthrospira maxima is confined to Central America.[1]

Historical use

An illustration from the Florentine Codex showing how the Aztecs harvested spirulina off lakes by skimming the surface with ropes (right) and then drying the algae into square cakes which would be eaten as a nourishing condiment (left)

Spirulina was a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th century; its harvesting from Lake Texcoco and subsequent sale as cakes is described by one of Cortés' soldiers.[3][4] The Aztecs called it Tecuitlatl, meaning stone's excrement.[citation needed]

Spirulina was found in abundance at Lake Texcoco by French researchers in the 1960s, but there is no reference to its use there as a daily food source after the 16th century.[2] The first large-scale spirulina production plant, run by Sosa Texcoco, was established there in the early 1970s.[1]

Leo Szilard postulated the development of algae-based food supplements (which he called "Amruss") in his 1961 short story, The Voice of the Dolphins.

Spirulina may have an even longer history in Chad, as far back as the 9th century Kanem Empire.[citation needed] It is still in daily use today, dried into cakes called dihé, which are used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad.[5]

Cultivation

Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water. The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Burma (a.k.a. Myanmar) and Chile .[1]

Nutrient and vitamin content

Spirulina contains about 60% (51–71%) protein.[6] It is a complete protein containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine and lysine when compared to the proteins of meat, eggs and milk. It is, however, superior to typical plant protein, such as that from legumes.[2][7] Overall, while spirulina is often marketed as an excellent source of protein, it is no better in this regard than milk or meat (in that they are all complete proteins), and is approximately 30 times more expensive per gram of protein.[8]

Spirulina is not considered to be a reliable source of Vitamin B12. The standard B12 assay, using Lactobacillus leichmannii, shows spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable vitamin B12.[9] Spirulina supplements contain predominantly pseudovitamin B12, which is biologically inactive in humans.[10] Companies which grow and market spirulina have claimed it to be a significant source of B12 on the basis of alternate, unpublished assays, although their claims are not accepted by independent scientific organizations. The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada in their position paper on vegetarian diets state that spirulina cannot be counted on as a reliable source of active vitamin B12.[11] The medical literature similarly advises that spirulina is unsuitable as a source of B12.[10][12]

Spirulina's lipid content is about 7% by weight,[13] and is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA).[7][14] Spirulina contains vitamins B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin A and vitamin E.[7][14] It is also a source of potassium, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium and zinc.[7][14] Spirulina contains many pigments which may be beneficial and bioavailable, including beta-carotene, zeaxanthin, chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin and oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.[1]

Possible health benefits and risks

Spirulina contains phenylalanine, which should be avoided by people who have the metabolic disorder phenylketonuria, where the body cannot metabolize this amino acid, and it builds up in the brain, causing damage.[15] Because spirulina is a dietary supplement, the United States Food and Drug Administration does not regulate the production and quality of the product. Spirulina is a form of cyanobacterium, some of which are known to produce toxins such as microcystins, BMAA, and others. Currently, no standard exists to regulate the safety of spirulina.[16]

In vitro research

Spirulina extract inhibits HIV replication in human T-cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and Langerhans cells.[17]

An in vitro study in 2008 concluded that Spirulina may possess iron-chelating properties. Human neuroblastoma cells were treated with a toxic amount of iron, and then treated with Spirulina. When treated, the iron-induced oxidative stress was reduced.[18]

Animal research

Spirulina helps prevent heart damage caused by chemotherapy using Doxorubicin, without interfering with its antitumor activity.[19] Spirulina reduces the severity of strokes and improves recovery of motor control after a stroke;[20] reverses age-related declines in memory and learning;[21] and prevents and treats hay fever.[22]

A study on the metabolism of mice indicates that it has little effect on their metabolism, and therefore probably that of humans, too.[23]

A study with diabetic rats concluded that Spirulina maxima was effective in correcting the abnormal carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms caused by excess fructose within the body.[24]

A 2010 study concluded that a spirulina dietary supplement was shown to delay the onset of motor symptoms and disease progression, reducing inflammatory markers and motor neuron death in a G93A mouse model of ALS.[25]

Human research

In undernourished children with or without HIV infection, Spirulina has been found to increase weight gain and correct anemia.[26] Spirulina has been reported as a treatment for melanosis and keratosis due to chronic arsenic poisoning.[27]

A study in 2005 found that spirulina protects against hay fever.[28] A more recent double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 2008 concerning 150 allergic rhinitis patients found that Spirulina platensis significantly reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory interleukin-4 by 32%, and the patients experienced symptomatic relief.[29] Furthermore, Spirulina was found to reduce the inflammation involved in arthritis in geriatric patients by stimulating the secretion of interleukin-2, which helps in regulating the inflammatory response.[30][Requires clarification, since IL-2 is typically thought of as pro-inflammatory]

A 2007 study[31] found that 36 volunteers taking 4.5 grams of spirulina per day, over a six week period, exhibited significant changes in cholesterol and blood pressure: (1) lowered total cholesterol; (2) increased HDL cholesterol; (3) lowered triglycerides; and (4) lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure. This study, however, did not contain a control group; researchers cannot be confident that the changes observed are due totally, or even partially, to the effects of the Spirulina maxima, as opposed to other confounding variables (i.e., history effects, maturation effects or demand characteristics). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention study involving geriatric patients determined that spirulina helped to significantly reduce the LDL-to-HDL ratio after four months of supplementation.[30]

A 2007 study concluded that spirulina improved the antioxidant potential of many geriatric patients who were administered it for 16 weeks. The plasma of these patients showed a measured increased level of total antioxidant status.[30] A double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 2006 found that spirulina supplementation decreased the amount of creatine kinase ( an indicator of muscular breakdown) in individuals after exercise. Furthermore, the experimental group's time to exhaustion during all out treadmill exercise increased by 52 seconds. These effects were thought to be due to spirulina's antioxidant potential.[32]

Weight loss

According to analysis of research by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), taking spirulina blue-green algae does not seem to help reduce weight.[33]

Organic certification

Until recently, much spirulina was certified organic. In 2002, the USDA's National Organic Standards Board voted to disallow the use of Chilean nitrate. They granted a three-year window to spirulina producers, which expired in 2006. As a result, leading spirulina manufacturers have stopped labeling their spirulina as organic, citing safety concerns of nitrate alternatives.[34]

Parry Nutraceuticals was the first company to introduce Organic Spirulina as per the new USDA NOP standards using pure vegetarian nitrogen sources.

Advocates

The United Nations World Food Conference in 1974 lauded spirulina as the 'best food for the future'. Recognizing the inherent potential of spirulina in the sustainable development agenda, several Member States of the United Nations came together to form an intergovernmental organization named the Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition (IIMSAM).[35] IIMSAM aspires to build a consensus with the UN Member States, international community and other stakeholders to make spirulina a key driver to eradicate malnutrition, achieve food security and bridge the health divide throughout the world.

Both NASA (CELSS)[36] and the European Space Agency (MELISSA)[37] proposed Spirulina as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions.

See also

Notes & references

  1. ^ a b c d e f Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
  2. ^ a b c Ciferri O (1983). "Spirulina, the edible microorganism". Microbiol. Rev. 47 (4): 551–78. PMC 283708. PMID 6420655. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517–1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.
  4. ^ Osborne, Ken; Kahn, Charles N. (2005). World History: Societies of the Past. Winnipeg: Portage & Main Press. ISBN 1-55379-045-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Abdulqader, G., Barsanti, L., Tredici, M. "Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu." Journal of Applied Phycology. 12: 493-498. 2000.
  6. ^ "Worldwide Studies Involving Spirulina". Intergovernmental Institution for the Use of Micro-Algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition (IIMSAM). Retrieved 2011-06-25.
  7. ^ a b c d Babadzhanov A.S.; et al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40 (3): 2004. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  8. ^ "Blue-green algae". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. November 18, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
  9. ^ Watanabe F, Takenaka S, Kittaka-Katsura H, Ebara S, Miyamoto E (2002). "Characterization and bioavailability of vitamin B12-compounds from edible algae". J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 48 (5): 325–31. PMID 12656203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ a b Watanabe F (2007). "Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability". Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood). 232 (10): 1266–74. doi:10.3181/0703-MR-67. PMID 17959839. Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudovitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. The edible cyanobacteria are not suitable for use as vitamin B(12) sources, especially in vegans.
  11. ^ Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
  12. ^ Watanabe F, Katsura H, Takenaka S, Fujita T, Abe K, Tamura Y, Nakatsuka T, Nakano Y (1999). "Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets". J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (11): 4736–41. PMID 10552882. The results presented here strongly suggest that spirulina tablet algal health food is not suitable for use as a B12 source, especially in vegetarians.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/content/vol9/issue4/full/5/
  14. ^ a b c Tokusoglu O., Unal M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana". Journal of Food Science. 68 (4): 2003.
  15. ^ Robb-Nicholson, C. (2006). "By the way, doctor". Harvard Women's Health Watch. 8.
  16. ^ Gilroy, D., Kauffman, K., Hall, D., Huang, X., & Chu, F. (2000). "Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (5): 435–439. doi:10.2307/3454384. JSTOR 3454384. PMC 1638057. PMID 10811570.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Ayehunie, S. et al. "Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication by an Aqueous Extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis)." JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes & Human Retrovirology. 18, 1, May 1998: 7-12.
  18. ^ Barmejo-Bescós, P., Piñero-Estrada, E., &Villar del Fresno, A. (2008). "Neuroprotection by Spirulina platensis protean extract and phycocyanin against iron-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells". Toxicology in Vitro. 22 (6): 1496–1502. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2008.05.004. PMID 18572379.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Khan M.; et al. (2005). "Protective effect of Spirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity". Phytotherapy Research. 19 (12): 1030–7. doi:10.1002/ptr.1783. PMID 16372368. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ Wang, Y., et al. "Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage." Experimental Neurology. May, 2005 ;193(1):75-84.
  21. ^ Gemma, C., et al. "Diets enriched in foods with high antioxidant activity reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function and increases in proinflammatory cytokines." Experimental Neurology. July 15, 2002; 22(14):6114-20.
  22. ^ Chen, LL, et al. "Experimental study of spirulina platensis in treating allergic rhinitis in rats." 中南大学学报(医学版) = Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences). Feb. 2005. 30(1):96-8.
  23. ^ Yin, J; Zuberi, A; Gao, Z; Liu, D; Liu, Z; Cefalu, WT; Ye, J (2008). "Effect of Shilianhua extract and its fractions on body weight of obese mice". Metabolism: clinical and experimental. 57 (7 Suppl 1): S47–51. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2008.03.004. ISSN 0026-0495. PMC 2504524. PMID 18555854. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. ^ Kulshreshtha, A., Zacharia, J., Jarouliya, U.,Bhadauriya, P., Prasad, G.B.K.S., & Bisen, P.S. (2008). "Spirulina in Health Care Management". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 9 (5): 400–405. doi:10.2174/138920108785915111. PMID 18855693.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ USF scientists test blue-green algae for treating ALS
  26. ^ Simpore, J., et al. "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 49, 2005: 373-380.
  27. ^ Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).
  28. ^ Mao TK; et al. (Spring 2005). "Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients". Journal of Medicinal Food. 8 (1): 27–30. doi:10.1089/jmf.2005.8.27. PMID 15857205. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  29. ^ Cingi, C., Conk-Dalay, M., Cakli, H., & Bal, C. (2008). "The effects of Spirulina on allergic rhinitis". European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Larynology. 265 (10): 1219–1223. doi:10.1007/s00405-008-0642-8. PMID 18343939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ a b c Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1159/000151486, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1159/000151486 instead.
  31. ^ Torres-Duran, Ferreira-Hermosillo, & Juarez-Oropeza. (2007). Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of mexican population: A preliminary report. Lipids in Health and Disease. 6, 33
  32. ^ Lu, H.K., Hsieh, C.C. Hsu, J.J., Yang, Y.K., & Chou, H.N. (2006). "Preventative effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise induced oxidative stress". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 98 (2): 220–226. doi:10.1007/s00421-006-0263-0. PMID 16944194.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/923.html
  34. ^ Organic standards spark spirulina row
  35. ^ IIMSAM, Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition
  36. ^ Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential. Normal, Al.: Alabama A&M University, 1988.
  37. ^ Cornet J.F., Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem." Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24–26, 1990


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