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| caption =.
| caption =.
| birth_name =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = c. 1618
| birth_date = c. 1810 BC
| birth_place = Babylon
| birth_place = Babylon
| death_date = 1750 BC [[middle chronology]]
| death_date = 1750 BC [[middle chronology]]

Revision as of 22:29, 25 October 2011

For the computer game, see Hamurabi.
Hammurabi; Aramaic
Bornc. 1810 BC
Babylon
Died1750 BC middle chronology
Babylon
TitleKing of Babylon
Term42 years; 1792 - 1750 BC
PredecessorSin-Muballit
SuccessorSamsu-iluna
ChildrenSamsu-iluna
Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash. Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer[1] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws).

Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ʻAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer", from ʻAmmu, "paternal kinsman", and Rāpi, "healer"; (died c. 1750 BC)) was the sixth king of Babylon (that is, of the First Babylonian Dynasty) from 1792 BC to 1750 BC middle chronology (1728 BC – 1686 BC short chronology)[2] He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his father, Sin-Muballit, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms.[3] Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire.

Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history.[citation needed] These laws were inscribed on stone tablets (stelae) standing over eight feet tall (2.4 meters), of unknown provenance, found in Persia in 1901. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world.

History

Main article: Campaigns of Hammurabi
Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c.1750 BC.

Hammurabi was a First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC.[4] Babylon was one of the many ancient city-states that dotted the Mesopotamian plain and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.[5] Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East.[6] The kings who came before Hammurabi had begun to consolidate rule of central Mesopotamia under Babylonian hegemony and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.[6] Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation. The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east lay the kingdom of Elam. To the north, Shamshi-Adad I was undertaking expansionistic wars,[7] although his untimely death would fragment his newly conquered Semitic empire.[8]

It is a noteworthy fact that in the large numbers of business documents that have come down to us out of this first dynasty of Babylon, none of the rulers down to Apil-Sin is called king and Sin-Muballit only in the form of a passing allusion in one single tablet. It is difficult to explain this fact unless we accept the view that the real kingdom of Babylon did not begin until Hammurabi had driven out the Elamites and so won for himself the title born by the old kings of Ur, Isin, and Larsa.

— A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I [9]

The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.[10] In c. 1701 BC, the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[11] With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the empire of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.[12] In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.[13] Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.[13] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC.[14]

As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.[14] Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest and soon after crushing Eshnunna.[15] Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the 'conquest' of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.[16][17][18] In just a few years, Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.[18] Of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in Syria maintained their independence.[18] However, one stele of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".[19]

Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.[20] These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[21] Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC.[22]

Code of laws

Main article: Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi is best known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the Code of Hammurabi.This Law was written before the Mosaic Code and was one of the first written laws in the world. The Code of Hammurabi was written on a stele, a large stone monument, and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.[23]

An inscription of the Code of Hammurabi.

The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy.[24] The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence.[25] However, there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment.

A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash or possibly Marduk,[26] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring the laws to them. Certain parallels have been drawn between this narrative and the laws given to Moses for the ancient Hebrews - marked differences between these two sets of law codes (as well as their methods of delivery) have also been pointed out by various authors over the years.[27][28][29][30][31][32]

Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations, including the earlier Mesopotamian examples of Ur-Nammu's code, Laws of Eshnunna, and Code of Lipit-Ishtar, and the later Hittite code of laws.[33]

Legacy and depictions

Under the rules of Hammurabi's successors, the Babylonian Empire was weakened by military pressure from the Hittites, who sacked Babylon around 1531 BC (short).[34] However it was the Kassites who eventually conquered Babylon and ruled Mesopotamia for 400 years, adopting parts of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws.

Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in several U.S. government buildings. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.[35] There is also a frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.[36]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ancient Iraq by Georges Roux, Chapter 17 The Time of Confusion p. 266
  2. ^ See Arnold 2006, p. vii. His date of birth is unknown, see for example, Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 1.
  3. ^ Beck, Roger B. (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. OCLC 39762695. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); no-break space character in |coauthors= at position 19 (help); no-break space character in |first= at position 6 (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  4. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 1
  5. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 1–2
  6. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 3
  7. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 3–4
  8. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 16
  9. ^ Robert William Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I, Eaton and Mains, 1900.
  10. ^ Arnold 2005, p. 43
  11. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 15–16
  12. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 17
  13. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 18
  14. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 31
  15. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 40–41
  16. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 54–55
  17. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 64–65
  18. ^ a b c Arnold 2005, p. 45
  19. ^ Clay, Albert Tobias (1919). The Empire of the Amorites. Yale University Press. p. 97.
  20. ^ Breasted 2003, p. 129
  21. ^ Breasted 2003, pp. 129–130
  22. ^ Arnold 2005, p. 42
  23. ^ Breasted 2003, p. 141
  24. ^ Review: The Code of Hammurabi, J. Dyneley Prince, The American Journal of Theology Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1904), pp. 601-609 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3153895
  25. ^ Victimology:Theories and Applications, Ann Wolbert Burgess, Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr,Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2009, p. 103
  26. ^ Jaynes, Julian (1976). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin Company Publishing. ISBN 0395207290.
  27. ^ Barton, G.A: Archaeology and the Bible. University of Michigan Library, 2009, p.406. Barton, a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania, stated that while there are similarities between the two texts, a study of the entirety of both laws "convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws." He states that "such resemblances" arose from "a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook" between the two cultures, but that "the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing." (ibid, p.406)
  28. ^ Archer, G.L., Jr.: A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Chicago: Moody Press, 1964, 1974, p.162
  29. ^ Unger, M.F.: Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1954, p.156, 157
  30. ^ Free, J.P.: Archaeology and Biblical History. Wheaton: Scripture Press, 1950, 1969, p. 121
  31. ^ Sayce, A.H.: Monument Facts and Higher Critical Fancies. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1904, p.72
  32. ^ McDowell, J.: The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1999, p.427-28. Some of the differences between the Code of Hammurabi and the Mosaic Law include: Purely religious injunctions under the Mosaic Law (Unger); laws pertaining to specific elements of society, such as tax-collectors, soldiers, and wine merchants under the Code of Hammurabi (Barton; Free); greater emphasis in the Mosaic Law on the value of human life regardless of occupation, social class, or gender (Unger); the cultural milieu and ideologies that each law is tailored towards (Archer; Unger); and lastly, a heavier emphasis/credit given in the Babylonian account - not to the divine (Shamash) - but to the human receptor (Hammurabi) for the establishing of the Law Code, whereas the Mosaic Law places heavier emphasis on God as the sole redactor and establisher of the Law, with Moses merely as the human receptor (Unger).
  33. ^ Davies, W. W. (January 2003). Codes of Hammurabi and Moses. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766131246. OCLC 227972329.
  34. ^ DeBlois 1997, p. 19
  35. ^ "Hammurabi". Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  36. ^ "Courtroom Friezes" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved 2008-05-19.

References

Further Reading

  • Finet, André (1973). Le trone et la rue en Mésopotamie: L'exaltation du roi et les techniques de l'opposition, in La voix de l'opposition en Mésopotamie. Bruxelles: Institut des Hautes Études de Belgique. OCLC 652257981.
  • Jacobsen, Th. (1943). "Primitive democracy in Ancient Mesopotomia". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2 (3): 159–172. doi:10.1086/370672.
  • Finkelstein, J. J. (1966). "The Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 20 (3): 95–118. doi:10.2307/1359643.
  • Hammurabi (1952). Driver, G.R.; Miles, John C. (eds.). The Babylonian Laws. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Leemans, W. F. (1950). The Old Babylonian Merchant: His Business and His Social Position. Leiden: Brill.
  • Munn-Rankin, J. M. (1956). "Diplomacy in Western Asia in the Early Second Millennium BC". Iraq. 18 (1): 68–110. doi:10.2307/4199599.
  • Pallis, S. A. (1956). The Antiquity of Iraq: A Handbook of Assyriology. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard.
  • Richardson, M.E.J. (2000). Hammurabi's laws : text, translation and glossary. Sheffield: Sheffield Acad. Press. ISBN 184127030X.
  • Saggs, H.W.F. (1988). The greatness that was Babylon : a survey of the ancient civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 0283996234.
  • Yoffee, Norman (1977). The economic role of the crown in the old Babylonian period. Malibu, CA: Undena Publications. ISBN 0890030219.
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