Masculism

Masculism (occasionally pejoratively referred to as "masculinism") is a term relating to a number of ideologies found in most streams of the men's movement consisting of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies primarily based on the experiences of men. Although masculism provides a general critique of social relations, many of its proponents also seek to analyze gender inequality and promote men's rights, interests, and issues. Masculism is viewed by its proponents as being an egalitarian view of gender issues, but with the focus on men's experience. They typically admit to many claims of feminism, of the limitations and disadvantages women have historically experienced, but seek to add the male experience of gender role limitation and disadvantage to the equation.

History of masculism

The first secular response to feminism came from Ernest Belfort Bax, a socialist theoretician in the height of socialism at the beginning of the 20th century, and an associate of Karl Marx. Bax wrote The Fraud of Feminism in 1913, which was in essence the first masculist text, with chapter titles such as "The Anti-Man Crusade," "Always The 'Injured Innocent'," and "The 'Chivalry' Fake."

In its modern form, masculism has evolved as a response to changing women's roles. The feminist advocacy for professional women led to a similar advocacy for fathers. For example, following the "working woman" T.V. programs of the 1970's (such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show) came numerous "single father" shows (such as The Courtship of Eddie's Father and Silver Spoons), as well as the child-custody themed motion picture Kramer vs. Kramer.

Warren Farrell is probably the most prominent author using the term "masculist" today. Terry Daly is claimed to have been the first to use it in print.

Masculist concerns

Masculists cite one-sided legislation, selective enforcement, and neglected civil rights as examples of discrimination against men (and boys). Other examples include:

Violence

• men being charged in domestic violence cases even when they are victims
• men being charged in rape and sexual harassment cases when there is no evidence beyond the plaintiff's complaint
• men forced to risk their lives in conscripted military service (exceptions exist, e.g. Israel, where women are also conscripted, but they are not required to serve in combat)
• humorous depiction in the media of violence by women against men, particularly castration and striking of testicles, and of prison rape
• male children being more likely to be killed by their parents
• hate crimes against men
• portrayal of "violence against women" as more important than other forms of violence
• the use of systematic rape as punishment in the prison system (see prison rape)

Abuse, aggression, and power

Social science textbooks generally report boys tend to participate in rough-and-trouble, and more group-oriented activities. The masculinist's view would emphasize that these qualities are not necessarily the same as or the precursor of violence, domination, or competitiveness. Girls, on the other hand, tend to be involved in more one-on-one, verbal, and emotion-oriented activities. While some boys become physical bullies, just as many girls bully psychologically. Such texts also describe males as being 20-25% larger and stronger, having abundant reproductive potential, and tending to be socialized to fulfill the adult roles of "provider-protectors" with respect to their communities or homes, and women or children. Females, on the other hand, have bodies designed for gestation, more limited generative potential, and are acculturated for the adult role as "nurturer-caregivers" with respect to their children, men, parents, and household. Factors like these establish the propensity for developing distinctive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving for each of the sexes.

Parenting

• child custody strongly favoring mothers in most countries; belief that children's growth is fostered more by mothers than fathers
• children aborted or given up for adoption without fathers' consent
• pregnacies carried to term despite agreements ahead of time that they would not be, subjecting men to unwanted parental responsibilities and/or child support expectations

In most countries, child custody is assigned to fathers less often than to mothers. Masculists argue that this should be made equal (some say reversed).

Some masculists cite a lower incidence for all child development risk factors in single-father households than in single-mother ones. Furthermore, if women's expectation of full custody contributes to family breakups (the majority of which are initiated by women), then the expectation of custody by the father might reduce the divorce rate.

An example of parenting discrimination: According to the Australian Sex Discrimination Commission, equality in child custody should begin with "equal parenting time while the marriage is intact"; and that only when men work part-time should fathers be given the same opportunity as mothers to parent their children after a separation. There seems to be a double standard that caring for children is compatible with mothers, but not fathers, working full-time. It is inconsistent treatment of men and women such as this that many masculists, humanists and fathers' rights groups wish to change.

Discrimination

• the government and feminist groups believing or teaching that anti-male discrimination is acceptable
• legislation biased against men (such as WIC and VAWA), using the word women in the law title
• biases in the justice system against men (i.e. - longer incarceration rates compared with women, for the same crimes)
• statutory rape laws enforced more vehemently in instances where the victim is female and/or the perpetrator is male, and the romanticization of the inverse relationship in the news and other media (e.g. the case of Mary Kay Letourneau and Vili Fualaau, see Double Standard: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse)
• As Cathy Young articulates, in rape cases, "the dogma that "women never lie" means that there is, for all intents and purposes, no presumption of innocence for the defendant"[1]
• earlier age of autonomy for women than men in some countries (In some U.S. states women may legally move out of their parent's home at 17, but men have to wait to be 18. Likewise women may marry at younger ages than men in some U.S. states.)
• men fired from their jobs for dissenting with feminist ideology in the workplace
• research and free speech repressed unless pro-feminist

Social concerns

• lack of advocacy for men's rights; more social programs for women than for men
• special government agencies for women's affairs with no corresponding agencies for men's affairs
• culture that conditions males to feel bad about being male
• men being incarcerated for the inability to pay unrealistic child support payments
• men less likely to receive aid from strangers if in trouble (broken down car, harassed, attacked by an animal, etc.)
• women treated more respectfully than men in public

Health

• relative lack of funding for men's health; far more money funded for female causes than for male causes (e.g., prostate cancer vs. breast cancer research)
• widespread infant male circumcision, predominantly in the USA.

Premature deaths

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, during the 1800's, men's life expectancy was within a year or so of women's, and approximately the same when adjusted for the dramatically higher infant mortality during that period. (Note: 5% more boys are born annually than girls). Men's life-spans slowly deteriorated thereafter. By the 1960's men were dying an average of 5-7 years earlier than women, from all causes combined. In other words, since the 1960's, all 45 million men who have died have done so an average of five or more years prematurely. Thus the loss of about 250 million years of men's lives have been unnecessarily - and inexplicably - lost while oru attention and resources were focused primarily on female-oriented life-threats, and concerns like job/pay inequality, sexual harassment, pronoun usage, and abortion rights. In addition to being males, each of the millions of men who have died prematurely were also the son, spouse, father, brother, and so forth of women.

Psychological health

The National Institute of Mental Health completed a survey of 20,000 people nation-wide in 1977. In sum, NIMH's research reported that, overall, males suffered from 20% more mental health disorders than women. Yet, the social sciences have created two new fields specializing in female mental health. And most universities also offer a variety of additional courses focused on women's psychological, social, and physical well-being. Efforts of similar nature and magnitude have not been made to address male, despite their apparent needs being substantially greater.

Education

• lack of educational aid for boys and men, given that their performance/enrolment at most levels lags behind girls'/women's; some states declaring all-male schools illegal and all-female schools legal

There is concern that some university Women's studies departments are more concerned with teaching feminist ideology than equality of gender. The content and emphasis of these courses vary, and some even discuss "masculinities"; but masculists fear that many such courses contribute to animosity towards men.

Some universities also carry "Men's studies" courses. Some feminists argue that these are redundant, stating that academia throughout history was predominantly focused on men; supporters of these courses note that most subjects do not deal with or study gender directly (few people would consider areas where women make up the majority, such as nursing, to be legitimately considered as areas of Women's studies).

Employment

• High-risk employment, but receiving no special honor for doing so
• Harder physical entrance critera for men in many occupations - such as the army, police and fire service. Masculinists claim that requiring men to be physically stronger than women in these occupations leaves men responsible for a greater share of the physical work, for no more pay.

Pay Differentials

Beginning in the 1960's, it has been continually asserted that women have been discriminated against with respect to jobs opportunities and pay in the professions and workplace in general. Aggregate employment and earnings data certainly reveals that substantial differences in career paths and gross remuneration disparities existed between the sexes. But introductory statistics teaches that data like, “Women earn 25% less than men,” tells nothing about why the overall difference exists - i.e. it does not prove discrimination.

Based on widely accepted economic theories, in a free-market-economy the scarcity of labor and competition dictate the level of pay for different professional categories (e.g. engineers vs. nurses or toolmakers vs. secretaries). It is also common knowledge among compensation specialists that job evaluation, appraisal programs, and labor market surveys have been practiced by major employers for at least the last five decades. While appraisals can always be challenged because they are an individualized, one-on-one, and subjective process, industry-standard job evaluation programs and market survey techniques have consistently proven to be completely gender-neutral. In sum, factors like these powerfully suggest that women’s lower pay in the 1960-80's was not the result of prejudice against females or bias in favor of males.

It takes several decades to master or reach the top of most professional and managerial fields. Hence, the same number of women as men would have had to embark on the same academic and career paths in the 1930-50’s to achieve the kind of overall equality in job status and pay demanded by Feminists in the 1960-80’s. And is there any concrete evidence to support the contention that men somehow prevented women from choosing more financially rewarding careers? On the contrary, it can be argued that the observational evidence indicates the women’s subculture has a far greater influence over female thinking, feelings, and behavior than the men’s subculture. In other words, the fact that women tended to occupy more lower-paying jobs than men was the result of the collective educational investment decisions and long-term career commitments females freely chose prior to mid-century. Most females basically elected to avoid lifetime-obligating and inflexible disciplines like engineering, accounting, marketing/sales, law, and management.

Hiring and promotions in a free-market are also automatically biased to favor the lowest cost, adequately qualified candidate. Thus, if quantities of “underpaid” women actually existed in the 1960-80's, they would not only have advanced more rapidly, but replaced their “overpriced” male competitors. But they would only have done so if they were similarly educated, at least minimally experience, and had close to the same performance record. These truisms are clearly reflected in today’s "golden-handshake" programs, in which the nation’s most seasoned (i.e. older) workers are being replaced in mass by just such job candidates - far less qualified, experienced, and proven younger workers. In the 1960’s-80’s, however, it is also true that executives were not as free to pursue their personal financial interests as overtly as today.

In this context, objective analysis of jobs and earnings data from readily available government sources (as well as, to some extent, many Almanacs) strongly suggests that the sexes have been generally paid the same for similar performance of equal jobs since, at least the middle of the last century; and also suggests that the hypothesis that a male-imposed “glass ceiling” has somehow existed in recent history is most doubtful. Since employees seldom claim to ever be paid "enough," bombarding society with authentic-sounding misinformation like the "75%-claim" not only helped convince women they were in reality underpaid and held back; but it was also crucial in persuading the public that females were more generally discriminated against and sexually harassed, first, at work, and then, culture-wide. Finally, in a free-market economy, motivating masses of women to enter the labor market during the 1970’s-90’s, without also reducing the number of men, would innately depress the earnings of both sexes in each of the affected job and career categories.

Differences in masculist ideology

As with most social movements, there is no consensus as to what exactly constitutes "masculism." Some feel the word describes a belief that the male and female genders should be considered complementary and interdependent by necessity. Such expressions of masculism are built around the belief that differentiated gender roles are natural and should be exempt from government interference. Others masculists, such as Warren Farrell, support an ideology of equivalence between the sexes, rather than a belief in unchangeable gender differences. A more encompassing definition might be "a movement to empower males in society, and to redress discrimination against men."

Because it is the name of a political and social movement, masculism is sometimes considered synonymous with the men's rights or fathers' rights movements. However, many of the fathers' rights movement make a clear distinction between masculism and their own often quite varied approaches to gender relations.

Some masculists state that one of their goals is to overturn the "covert matriarchy" and elect masculist politicians, whom they would consider more altruistically motivated. Theorists such as David Constantine envision structural changes in taxation or other areas to compensate for what they see as natural differences and expectations between genders.

Gender roles in religion are a source of disagreement among masculists: some support a general leadership role for men, while others argue for relative equality between the genders. Liberal masculists such as Warren Farrell tend to favour a secular, gender-neutral stance, whereas conservatives tend to prefer a religious approach, such as represented in The Inevitability of Patriarchy by Steven Goldberg. Conservatives may promote a "New Patriarchy" by countering feminist ideology with their own. Such liberal-conservative dynamics illustrate the diverity of a movement that nonetheless has a unified purpose of promoting men's welfare.

Conservative views

Conservative masculists tend to believe that profound gender differences are inherent in human nature, contrary to the notion that both genders have the same capacity in virtually every respect. They believe that feminists who have denounced differentiated gender roles as an oppressive artificial construct are conducting a fallacious experiment by attempting to negate these differences via legislation and other means (this view is also held by many non-masculists). Many conservatives believe that feminism has played a role in the high rates of divorce (see marriage strike), alienation of the genders, female chauvinism, love-shyness, disintegrating communities, fatherless children, high school dropout, drug addiction, consumerism, teenage pregnancy, male suicide, violent crime (especially murder), road rage, and overfilled prisons.

Critics of gender equality laws (beginning with the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964) believe they have helped to make feminist ideology mainstream - that such laws serve primarily women and have created significant unconstitutional discrimination against men. While some feminists fight against an "all-powerful patriarchy", conservative masculists tend to consider patriarchy an inevitable result of the biological differences between the sexes. Some disagree that women are powerless victims of patriarchal oppression; they suggest that feminists use this idea to curtail men's rights and to justify their negative views of men. They claim this has achieved a covert matriarchy, aided by chivalry towards women that itself undermines the notion of female oppression.

At the far end are men who assert male power is a divine right, ordained by God, and urge a return to responsible patriarchy.

Liberal views

Liberals tend to view masculism as a complementary movement to feminism, the so-called "New Masculinity." Both feminism and masculism are seen as attempts to correct disadvantages induced by gender roles. Whereas feminists addresses areas they believe women to be disadvantaged, such as equal pay and promotion, masculists address areas they believe men to be disadvantaged, such as divorce and custody, health and education, criminal prosecution and sentencing. These masculists may object to specific aspects of feminism or to the expressed views of specific feminist groups, but do not reject feminism as a concept, or believe that the feminist movement as a whole is hostile to masculism.

For example, Warren Farrell states in The Myth of Male Power (ISBN 0425181448) that both genders are hampered by the "bisexist" roles of the past: sexism that oppresses both genders. He emphasises the compatibility of both movements: "I use two podiums: Dr. Farrell, Masculist; and Dr. Farrell, Feminist." [2] Fred Hayward, in his speech to the National Congress for Men in 1981, states: "We must not reverse the women's movement; we must accelerate it... [Men's liberation] is not a backlash, for there is nothing about traditional sex roles that I want to go back to".

This suggests that masculism in some form can assist and aid the women's movement; feminists have met this with both encouragement and trepidation. Many feminists believe that men are inherently oppressive, some believe that space for women to have a voice would be threatened by the presence of men, or that a growing presence of men in the women's movement would displace the voices of the women. Others greet masculist interests in the women's movement as important for the eradication of sexism in society.

Likewise, gender egalitarians call for both masculists and feminists who are truly interested in equality to unite under the banner of gender egalitarianism. This philosophy is sympathetic to legitimate grievances from both males and females, but does not tolerate prejudice or bigotry from either gender.

Criticisms of masculism

While agreeing they are legitimate concerns, and are in some ways underrepresented in society, some critics of masculism disagree with the approach being taken; they argue that too much criticism is being directed at other groups, namely feminism. For example, while many masculists point out that the majority of murder victims are men, critics point out that they fail to realise or address that the perpetrators are usually male; and that for every single mother with a child that faces social hardships, there is a corresponding father out there somewhere who may be contributing to it. While masculists argue that there is a lack of public funding for male health issues, others point to the success of drugs such as Viagra, and argue that doctors and pharmaceutical companies are willing to meet needs of men if they are sufficiently vocal in expressing a desire for them. Further as masculists express concern of lack of social programs/advocacy groups for men as opposed to women, critics point out that they took initiative, money, risks, and work on the part of women in large groups in order to even get public funding. The groups exist because women took it upon themselves to both create and be vocal in their desire for them and for them to be passed onto the next generation.

What masculists often contend is censorship of point-of-views that don't fall in line with what they perceive as "feminist" and/or "pro-feminist", critics claim is often wide-spread disagreeing and that nothing protects anybody from criticism no matter what their beliefs. Further critics question the validity of the claims and it's suggested prevalence and put forth that for individual cases one can find that it isn't specific to any idealogy. To masculists who bemoan a tendancy to treat alleged rapists as "guilty until proven innocent", critics contend that such views are not specific to alleged rapists and suggest a failure to differentiate between what is the legal view ("innocent until proven guilty") and what is true among citizens.

Critics of masculism interpret what masculists term male powerlessness as loss of male power or failure stay a perceived rigid course required to achieve as much. Critics hold these are consequences of male power that has always required men to equate masculinity with machismo, male-male competition and control based on class in order to maintain male-power. Though masculists may argue that the likelihood of a stranger to assist a woman, but not a man, in trouble is a reflection of less importance placed on men, others attribute it to behavioural notions reinforced from birth, such as the presumption of men as ideally self-sufficient. For instance, a boy that had fallen and injured himself—unlike a girl—may be encouraged to recover by himself, and praised for doing so. Likewise, the male proclivity towards high-risk jobs among men compared to women may be consequences of a machismo attitude that is often equated with masculinity, possibly perpetuated by men themselves. Men generally outnumber women in risky and dangerous occupations such as the police, fire service and army, but in most cases it is the men themselves who voluntarily choose to enter these occupations. The higher rate of successful suicide may stem from attitudes that discourage men from discussing problems that would otherwise see them getting the help they need, and in general lack of social solidarity which sociological studies (ie. Emile Durkheim [3]) have suggested was long true among groups with the highest rate of suicide. Critics also challenge the view that men are given longer sentences for the same crime and point out that in individual cases where a judge gives a woman a lesser sentence, it often reflects sexist stereotypes such as "she was manipulated into it," or "she is a soft touch". Critics hold that these are a reflection of a broad societal problem that favors men who fall in line with what is required but that, like everything, has it's consequences.

Critics suggest that the ability to eradicate many disadvantages lies within men, because only they can take the reigns in something their own, masculinity, as for example women unhappy with their own situation have taken with femininity over the years, or ethnic-minority groups have. For these critics, men themselves should be the focus of change: they should fundamentally reevaluate how male gender roles are defined and conserved in society and pursue meaningful change through means over which they only, being they are males, have control. The idea is that in essence, the problems identified by masculists often originate in a lack of accountability and initiative on the part of men themselves and/or a desire of males who identify the problems to want it what is perceived as "both ways".

The current state of masculism

Masculism and father's rights have edged further into mainstream thinking. Various Western governments have reviewed laws on child custody after divorce, the legality of circumcision on male infants, child support guidelines, etc. The Internet has helped groups network together. Frequent campaigns and demonstrations, especially on father's rights, attract media attention.

Recent opposition to masculism includes statements in a government-funded report requested by Status of Women Canada, a department of the Canadian federal government. "School Success by Gender: A Catalyst for the Masculinist (sic) Discourse" [4] examines a wide variety of masculist web sites and states: "these groups are largely composed of white, heterosexual, middle-class men who have not been successful in coping with the challenge to masculinity posed by feminism." This report also advocated that the people listed in the report be monitored and possibly prosecuted for "hate speech" due to their disagreement with feminist ideology.

Masculists and dissident feminists such as Wendy McElroy have expressed outrage at what they see as attempts to censor or chill free expression, and taxpayer financing of ideologically-biased reports. [5] They have also claimed that the characterizations made of masculists by this Canadian report could equally be applied to many Western feminists (white, middle class, unsuccessful coping with current role of women, etc.).

Some feminists have pointed out that such generalizations do not apply to women and feminists outside of many Western countries; masculists note that men in poorer countries generally do not receive any outside funding to promote masculism, like many women do for issues that concern feminism. Many men in such countries also face other hardships that may or may not be related to gender. Feminists argue that masculists should then take steps to see that they do, as feminists have over the years, if it is out of genuine concern and not just stone-throwing.

See also

• Antifeminist
• Classical definition of effeminacy
• Humanism
• Masculine psychology
• Masculinity
• Misandry
• Paideia
• Pater familias
• Patriarchy
• Reverse discrimination

Men's movements

• Fathers For Justice
• Fathers' rights
• Men's movement
• Men's rights
• Promise Keepers

People

• Warren Farrell

Bibliography

• Politics of Aristotle asserts excellence varies with social role, including gender.
• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, 1792.
• On Liberty by John Stuart Mill, 1859.
• The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill, 1869.
• The Legal Subjection of Men by Ernest Belfort Bax, 1908.
• The Fraud of Feminism by Ernest Belfort Bax, 1914.
• The Myth of the Monstrous Male and Other Feminist Fallacies; John Gordon, Playboy Press, New York, 1982; ISBN 0-87223-758-3
• The Myth of Male Power: Why Men Are the Disposable Sex; Warren Farrell, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1993: ISBN 0-671-79349-7
• Not Guilty: The Case in Defense of Men; David Thomas, William Morrow and Co., Inc., New York, 1993; ISBN 0-688-11024-X
• Good Will Toward Men; Jack Kammer, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994; ISBN 0-312-10471-5
• Moral Panic: Biopolitics Rising; John Fekete, Robert Davies Publishing, Montreal-Toronto, 1994: ISBN 1-895854-09-1
• The New Men's Studies: A Selected and Annotated Interdisciplinary Bibliography (2nd Edition); Eugene R. August, Libraries Unlimited, Inc., Englewood, CO, 1994: ISBN 1-56308-084-2
• A Man's World: How Real Is Male Privilege - And How High Is Its Price?; Ellis Cose, Harper Collins, New York, 1995: ISBN 0-06-017206-1
• Why Men Don't Iron: The Real Science of Gender Studies; Anne & Bill Moir, Harper Collins, Hammersmith, London, 1998; ISBN 0-00-257035-1 (Trade Paperback); ISBN 0-00-257048-3 (Hardcover)
• The Church Impotent: The Feminization of Christianity; Leon J. Podles, Spence Publishing Co., Dallas, TX, 1999. (The title is a play on the Catholic theological terms church militant and church triumphant.)
• Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture; Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 2001; ISBN 0-7735-2272-7

• Sex Differences, Modern Biology and the Unisex Fallacy, Yves Christen
• Who Stole Feminism?: How Women Have Betrayed Women; Christina Hoff Sommers ISBN 0684801566
• The War Against Boys: How Misguided Feminism Is Harming Our Young Men; Christina Hoff Sommers ISBN 0684849569
• If Men Have All the Power How Come Women Make the Rules?; Jack Kammer [6]
• Domestic Violence: The 12 Things You Aren't Supposed to Know by Thomas B. James ISBN 1593301227
• Ceasefire! : Why Women And Men Must Join Forces To Achieve True Equality; Cathy Young ISBN 0684834421
• The Masculine Mystique; Andrew Kimbrell ISBN 0345386582

External links

Masculist Links

• Double Standard: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse
• Table of Contents for Bax' The Fraud of Feminism
• Defending All-Male Education: A New Cultural Movement for a Renewed Debate
• TheMaleVoice.org - Men's Rights, Men's Issue's, Discrimination Against Men
• The Post (Liberal) Feminist Condition
• [7] American Coalition for Fathers and Children.
• Equal Parental Rights for Fathers Fathers For Virginia
• National Coalition of Free Men Men's Movement and men's rights.
• Men's Activism Men's rights Discussion group.
• Save Indian Family Masculist Movement in India.
• Yahoo "Men's Movement" groups

Critical of masculism

• Pierrette Bouchard, Isabelle Boily and Marie-Claude Proulx, School Success by Gender: A Catalyst for the Masculinist Discourse, Status of Women Canada, March 2003 at the Status of Women Canada site
• Stephen Fisher: Are men evil? Reflections on the tactics and motivation of men’s rights advocates
• What is the men's movement? by Michael Flood
• What extremist masculims can do