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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
The following is a proposed conservation management plan for the snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum''. Two subspecies are recognized including the Cumberland snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum atripinne'' and the Tennessee snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum simoterum''.<ref name="ref1">'''Heins, David C.''' 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.</ref> The historical and current range of ''E. simoterum atripinne'' includes the Lower Tennessee River drainage unit and the Cumberland River drainage unit.<ref name="ref2">'''Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes.''' 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.</ref> The historical range of ''E. simoterum simoterum'' includes the Lower and Upper Tennessee River units, and it has been introduced into both the Licking Big Sandy Creek river unit and the Kanawha-New-Guyandotte-Little Kanawha River unit.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the Lower Tennessee River unit.<ref name="ref1"></ref> The mean standard length of ''Etheostoma simoterum'' is 45 mm, the reported clutch size is 152, and the maximum age is 1 year.<ref name="ref3">'''Paine, M.D.''' 1990. Life history tactics of darters (Percidae: ''Etheostomatiini'') and their relationship with body size, reproductive behaviour, latitude and rarity. Journal of Fish Biology 37: 473-488.</ref> The snubnose darter inhabits riffles and rock-bottomed pools in streams with low turbidity.<ref name="ref1"></ref> As of 2000, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' was listed as currently stable, meaning that it is widespread and not in need of any immediate conservation action.<ref name="ref2"></ref>
The following is a proposed conservation management plan for the snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum''. Two subspecies are recognized including the Cumberland snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum atripinne'' and the Tennessee snubnose darter ''Etheostoma simoterum simoterum''. <ref name="ref1">'''Heins, David C.''' 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.</ref> The historical and current range of ''E. simoterum atripinne'' includes the Lower Tennessee River drainage unit and the Cumberland River drainage unit.<ref name="ref2">'''Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes.''' 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.</ref> The historical range of ''E. simoterum simoterum'' includes the Lower and Upper Tennessee River units, and it has been introduced into both the Licking Big Sandy Creek river unit and the Kanawha-New-Guyandotte-Little Kanawha River unit.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the Lower Tennessee River unit.<ref name="ref1"></ref> The mean standard length of ''Etheostoma simoterum'' is 45 mm, the reported clutch size is 152, and the maximum age is 1 year.<ref name="ref3">'''Paine, M.D.''' 1990. Life history tactics of darters (Percidae: ''Etheostomatiini'') and their relationship with body size, reproductive behaviour, latitude and rarity. Journal of Fish Biology 37: 473-488.</ref> The snubnose darter inhabits riffles and rock-bottomed pools in streams with low turbidity.<ref name="ref1"></ref> As of 2000, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' was listed as currently stable, meaning that it is widespread and not in need of any immediate conservation action.<ref name="ref2"></ref>

==Geographic Distribution==
‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is native to the Tennessee River and Cumberland River drainages of Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. <ref name=”ref7”>’’’Fuller, Pam, and Matt Neilson.’’’ 2011. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=817 RevisionDate: 8/5/2011.</ref> Warren et al. described the distribution of the freshwater fish native to the Southern United States by drainage basin.<ref name="ref2"></ref> The historical range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum simoterum’’ includes the Upper and Lower Tennessee River drainage units. <ref name="ref2"></ref> The historical range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum atripinne’’ includes the Lower Tennessee River and Cumberland River drainage units.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the Lower Tennessee River unit.<ref name="ref2"></ref> ‘’Etheostoma simoterum simoterum’’ has been introduced into both the Licking Big Sandy and Kanawha-New-Guyandotte-Little Kanawha River units.<ref name="ref2"></ref>

==Ecology==
Snubnose darters inhabit flowing bedrock or gravel-bottomed pools with moderate current in small to medium streams.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> They have been observed spawning in streams with water temperature ranging from 11 to 18oC.<ref name="ref6">’’’Porterfield, Jean C.’’’ 1998. Spawning behavior of snubnose darters (Percidae) in natural and laboratory environments. Environmental Biology of Fishes 53: 413-419.</ref> Etheostoma simoterum prefers a habitat with no vegetation or light algae. <ref name="ref6"></ref> Adult and juvenile snubnose darters are invertivorous.<ref name=’’ref4’’>NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available at http://www.tnfish.org/SpeciesFishInformation_TWRA/Research/SnubnoseDarterEtheostomaSimoterum_NatureServeExplorer.pdf. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).</ref> Examination of the stomach contents of 45 individuals broken into 4 size classes showed that midge larvae of the family ‘’Chironomidae’’ makes up the bulk of the diet.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Depending on size class, between 80% and 100% of examined stomachs contained midge larvae.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Mayfly naiads, caddisfly larvae, copepods and cladocerans were also major contributors to overall stomach content.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Consumption of food is highest in April, corresponding with the peak of spawning, while food consumption is much lower during months of temperature extremes and decreased activity such as January and July.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref>

Large darters are susceptible to internal parasitism by flukes and nematodes. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> External parasites such as black spot disease caused by the fluke metacercariae and piscicolid leeches also affect snubnose darters. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref>

Snubnose darters are rarely found in water with high turbidity or where the substrate has been impacted by siltation, and human activities such as dam building or destruction of riparian buffers may lead to increased siltation thereby threatening darter populations. <ref name=’’ref4’’></ref>

==Life History==
Etheostoma simoterum reach sexual maturity at an age of 1 year and only survive for one breeding season, which occurs in April to early May. <ref name=’’ref5’’>’’’Page, Lawrence M., and Richard L. Mayden.’’’ 1981. The Life History of the Tennessee Snubnose Darter, ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. Illinois Natural History Survey: Biological Notes 117: 1-11.</ref> The darter breeds in bedrock pools and crevices with low siltation. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> The testes of breeding males gradually begin to increase in size in January and reach their peak in April. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Males also begin to develop bright breeding colors in January, and by April all males are deep green to blue-green with red dorsal fins and red spots along the body. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Breeding females do not change in color, but they may be slightly brighter in tone. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Mature eggs are transparent, contain oil droplets and are an average of 1.2 mm in diameter.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> One study showed that the number of mature eggs per female ranges from 110 to 240 by April.<ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Males court females by displaying erect fins and bright breeding colors. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> A female responds to this display by leading the male to an appropriate site for egg deposition such as a large stone or, more rarely, a gravel bed. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> The pair vibrates together, and after one or two eggs are released and fertilized by the male, the pair may move to another acceptable site to repeat the spawning act. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> However, snubnose darters are often promiscuous and may move on to find other mates instead. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> There is no parental care such as egg guarding after spawning. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref> Snubnose darters survive to a maximum age of 18 months. <ref name=’’ref5’’></ref>

==Current Management==
‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is listed as ‘’currently stable,’’ which Warren et al. define as “a species or subspecies whose distribution is widespread and stable or a species or subspecies that may have declined in portions of its range but is not in need of immediate conservation management actions.”<ref name="ref2"></ref> Based on certain life history parameters, the American Fisheries Society lists ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ as highly resilient with low vulnerability.<ref name=’’ref8’’>’’’Froese, Rainer.’’’ 2010. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum.’’ http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=3466. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).</ref>

Habitat degradation and fragmentation are generally to blame for the decline of native fish in the southern United States.<ref name="ref2"></ref> While ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is currently listed as stable, continued human population growth will lead to increased demands on natural resources and even greater challenges for species in the region.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Stream channelization, sedimentation and impoundment, which are often the major threats to species’ viability, will likely increase as the human demand for land, water, and energy increases with population growth.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Because the range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is isolated to only five drainage basins in a single region, even localized habitat destruction could severely threaten the viability of the species.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Unfortunately, all of the states in which ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ exists are currently listed in the “extreme risk” to ecosystems category by a national assessment based on the level of developmental pressure and the number of currently threatened species and ecosystems.<ref name="ref2"></ref>

Certain characteristics of a species can make it disproportionately more susceptible to human threats.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Studies have shown, for example, that species such as ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ who specialize in benthic habitats in small to medium-sized rivers are more likely to be threatened by human activities.<ref name="ref2"></ref>

Another detriment to fish in the southern United Sates is that the watersheds that support the greatest numbers of species are largely associated with privately owned land.<ref name="ref2"></ref> Therefore, the vast majority of fish species in the southern states do not inhabit waters protected by federal ownership.<ref name="ref2"></ref>

==Management Recommendations==
Because ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is not currently at high risk for extinction, it does not need to be considered a top priority for focused conservation efforts. However, taking a more holistic watershed approach to management may prevent ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ from future threat.<ref name=”ref9”> ’’’Environmental Protection Agency.’’’ 2011. A Watershed Approach. http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/approach.cfm. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).</ref>



==References==
==References==
Line 20: Line 46:
*http://www.bio.utk.edu/hulseylab/Fishlist.html
*http://www.bio.utk.edu/hulseylab/Fishlist.html
*'''Clabaugh, Jerod P., K. Emily Knott, Robert M. Wood, and Richard L. Mayden.''' 1996. Systematics and Biogeography of Snubnose Darters, Genus ''Etheostoma'' (Teleostei: Percidae) from the Black Warrior River System, Alabama. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24: 119-134.
*'''Clabaugh, Jerod P., K. Emily Knott, Robert M. Wood, and Richard L. Mayden.''' 1996. Systematics and Biogeography of Snubnose Darters, Genus ''Etheostoma'' (Teleostei: Percidae) from the Black Warrior River System, Alabama. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24: 119-134.
*’’’Environmental Protection Agency.’’’ 2011. A Watershed Approach. http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/approach.cfm. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
*’’’Froese, Rainer.’’’ 2010. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum.’’ http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=3466. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
*’’’Fuller, Pam, and Matt Neilson.’’’ 2011. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=817 RevisionDate: 8/5/2011.
*'''Greenberg, Larry A.''' 1988. Interactive Segregation between the Stream Fishes ''Etheostoma simoterum'' and ''E. rufilinatum.'' Oikos 51: 193-202.
*'''Greenberg, Larry A.''' 1988. Interactive Segregation between the Stream Fishes ''Etheostoma simoterum'' and ''E. rufilinatum.'' Oikos 51: 193-202.
*'''Heins, David C.''' 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.
*'''Heins, David C.''' 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, ''Etheostoma simoterum'' (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.
Line 25: Line 55:
*'''Jones, Jess W., and Richard J. Neves.''' 2002. Life History and Propagation of the Endangered Fanshell Pearlymussel, ''Cyprogenia stegaria Rafinesque'' (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 21: 76-88.
*'''Jones, Jess W., and Richard J. Neves.''' 2002. Life History and Propagation of the Endangered Fanshell Pearlymussel, ''Cyprogenia stegaria Rafinesque'' (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 21: 76-88.
*'''Jones, Jess W., Richard J. Neves, Steven A. Ahlstedt, and Rachel A. Mair.''' 2004. Life history and propagation of the endangered dromedary pearlymussel (''Dromus dromas'') (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23: 515-525.
*'''Jones, Jess W., Richard J. Neves, Steven A. Ahlstedt, and Rachel A. Mair.''' 2004. Life history and propagation of the endangered dromedary pearlymussel (''Dromus dromas'') (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23: 515-525.
*’’’Mendelson, Tamra C., and Matthew K. Wong.’’’ 2010. AFLP phylogeny of the snubnose darters and allies (Percidae: ‘’Etheostom’’) provides resolution across multiple levels of divergence. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 57: 1253-1259.
*NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available at http://www.tnfish.org/SpeciesFishInformation_TWRA/Research/SnubnoseDarterEtheostomaSimoterum_NatureServeExplorer.pdf. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
*’’’Page, Lawrence M., and Richard L. Mayden.’’’ 1981. The Life History of the Tennessee Snubnose Darter, ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. Illinois Natural History Survey: Biological Notes 117: 1-11. http://www.archive.org/stream/lifehistoryoften117page#page/n3/mode/2up. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
*'''Paine, M.D.''' 1990. Life history tactics of darters (Percidae: ''Etheostomatiini'') and their relationship with body size, reproductive behaviour, latitude and rarity. Journal of Fish Biology 37: 473-488.
*'''Paine, M.D.''' 1990. Life history tactics of darters (Percidae: ''Etheostomatiini'') and their relationship with body size, reproductive behaviour, latitude and rarity. Journal of Fish Biology 37: 473-488.
*’’’Porterfield, Jean C.’’’ 1998. Spawning behavior of snubnose darters (Percidae) in natural and laboratory environments. Environmental Biology of Fishes 53: 413-419.
*'''Rogers, Susan O., Brian T. Watson, Richard J. Neves.''' 2001. Life History and Population Biology of the Endangered Tan Riffleshell (''Epioblasma florentina walkeri'') (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 20: 582-594.
*'''Rogers, Susan O., Brian T. Watson, Richard J. Neves.''' 2001. Life History and Population Biology of the Endangered Tan Riffleshell (''Epioblasma florentina walkeri'') (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 20: 582-594.
*'''Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes.''' 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.
*'''Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes.''' 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.




Revision as of 06:49, 21 November 2011

Snubnose darter
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Actinopterygii
Order:
Perciformes
Family:
Percidae
Genus:
Etheostoma
Species:
E. simoterum
Binomial name
Etheostoma simoterum
(Cope, 1868)

The common name of Etheostoma simoterum is the snubnose darter. It is one of the 324 fish species found in Tennessee.

Introduction

The following is a proposed conservation management plan for the snubnose darter Etheostoma simoterum. Two subspecies are recognized including the Cumberland snubnose darter Etheostoma simoterum atripinne and the Tennessee snubnose darter Etheostoma simoterum simoterum. [1] The historical and current range of E. simoterum atripinne includes the Lower Tennessee River drainage unit and the Cumberland River drainage unit.[2] The historical range of E. simoterum simoterum includes the Lower and Upper Tennessee River units, and it has been introduced into both the Licking Big Sandy Creek river unit and the Kanawha-New-Guyandotte-Little Kanawha River unit.[2] Intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the Lower Tennessee River unit.[1] The mean standard length of Etheostoma simoterum is 45 mm, the reported clutch size is 152, and the maximum age is 1 year.[3] The snubnose darter inhabits riffles and rock-bottomed pools in streams with low turbidity.[1] As of 2000, Etheostoma simoterum was listed as currently stable, meaning that it is widespread and not in need of any immediate conservation action.[2]

Geographic Distribution

‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is native to the Tennessee River and Cumberland River drainages of Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. [4] Warren et al. described the distribution of the freshwater fish native to the Southern United States by drainage basin.[2] The historical range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum simoterum’’ includes the Upper and Lower Tennessee River drainage units. [2] The historical range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum atripinne’’ includes the Lower Tennessee River and Cumberland River drainage units.[2] Intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the Lower Tennessee River unit.[2] ‘’Etheostoma simoterum simoterum’’ has been introduced into both the Licking Big Sandy and Kanawha-New-Guyandotte-Little Kanawha River units.[2]

Ecology

Snubnose darters inhabit flowing bedrock or gravel-bottomed pools with moderate current in small to medium streams.[5] They have been observed spawning in streams with water temperature ranging from 11 to 18oC.[6] Etheostoma simoterum prefers a habitat with no vegetation or light algae. [6] Adult and juvenile snubnose darters are invertivorous.[7] Examination of the stomach contents of 45 individuals broken into 4 size classes showed that midge larvae of the family ‘’Chironomidae’’ makes up the bulk of the diet.[5] Depending on size class, between 80% and 100% of examined stomachs contained midge larvae.[5] Mayfly naiads, caddisfly larvae, copepods and cladocerans were also major contributors to overall stomach content.[5] Consumption of food is highest in April, corresponding with the peak of spawning, while food consumption is much lower during months of temperature extremes and decreased activity such as January and July.[5]

Large darters are susceptible to internal parasitism by flukes and nematodes. [5] External parasites such as black spot disease caused by the fluke metacercariae and piscicolid leeches also affect snubnose darters. [5]

Snubnose darters are rarely found in water with high turbidity or where the substrate has been impacted by siltation, and human activities such as dam building or destruction of riparian buffers may lead to increased siltation thereby threatening darter populations. [7]

Life History

Etheostoma simoterum reach sexual maturity at an age of 1 year and only survive for one breeding season, which occurs in April to early May. [5] The darter breeds in bedrock pools and crevices with low siltation. [5] The testes of breeding males gradually begin to increase in size in January and reach their peak in April. [5] Males also begin to develop bright breeding colors in January, and by April all males are deep green to blue-green with red dorsal fins and red spots along the body. [5] Breeding females do not change in color, but they may be slightly brighter in tone. [5] Mature eggs are transparent, contain oil droplets and are an average of 1.2 mm in diameter.[5] One study showed that the number of mature eggs per female ranges from 110 to 240 by April.[5] Males court females by displaying erect fins and bright breeding colors. [5] A female responds to this display by leading the male to an appropriate site for egg deposition such as a large stone or, more rarely, a gravel bed. [5] The pair vibrates together, and after one or two eggs are released and fertilized by the male, the pair may move to another acceptable site to repeat the spawning act. [5] However, snubnose darters are often promiscuous and may move on to find other mates instead. [5] There is no parental care such as egg guarding after spawning. [5] Snubnose darters survive to a maximum age of 18 months. [5]

Current Management

‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is listed as ‘’currently stable,’’ which Warren et al. define as “a species or subspecies whose distribution is widespread and stable or a species or subspecies that may have declined in portions of its range but is not in need of immediate conservation management actions.”[2] Based on certain life history parameters, the American Fisheries Society lists ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ as highly resilient with low vulnerability.[8]

Habitat degradation and fragmentation are generally to blame for the decline of native fish in the southern United States.[2] While ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is currently listed as stable, continued human population growth will lead to increased demands on natural resources and even greater challenges for species in the region.[2] Stream channelization, sedimentation and impoundment, which are often the major threats to species’ viability, will likely increase as the human demand for land, water, and energy increases with population growth.[2] Because the range of ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is isolated to only five drainage basins in a single region, even localized habitat destruction could severely threaten the viability of the species.[2] Unfortunately, all of the states in which ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ exists are currently listed in the “extreme risk” to ecosystems category by a national assessment based on the level of developmental pressure and the number of currently threatened species and ecosystems.[2]

Certain characteristics of a species can make it disproportionately more susceptible to human threats.[2] Studies have shown, for example, that species such as ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ who specialize in benthic habitats in small to medium-sized rivers are more likely to be threatened by human activities.[2]

Another detriment to fish in the southern United Sates is that the watersheds that support the greatest numbers of species are largely associated with privately owned land.[2] Therefore, the vast majority of fish species in the southern states do not inhabit waters protected by federal ownership.[2]

Management Recommendations

Because ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ is not currently at high risk for extinction, it does not need to be considered a top priority for focused conservation efforts. However, taking a more holistic watershed approach to management may prevent ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’ from future threat.[9]


References

  1. ^ a b c Heins, David C. 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, Etheostoma simoterum (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes. 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.
  3. ^ Paine, M.D. 1990. Life history tactics of darters (Percidae: Etheostomatiini) and their relationship with body size, reproductive behaviour, latitude and rarity. Journal of Fish Biology 37: 473-488.
  4. ^ ’’’Fuller, Pam, and Matt Neilson.’’’ 2011. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=817 RevisionDate: 8/5/2011.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t ’’’Page, Lawrence M., and Richard L. Mayden.’’’ 1981. The Life History of the Tennessee Snubnose Darter, ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. Illinois Natural History Survey: Biological Notes 117: 1-11.
  6. ^ a b ’’’Porterfield, Jean C.’’’ 1998. Spawning behavior of snubnose darters (Percidae) in natural and laboratory environments. Environmental Biology of Fishes 53: 413-419.
  7. ^ a b NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available at http://www.tnfish.org/SpeciesFishInformation_TWRA/Research/SnubnoseDarterEtheostomaSimoterum_NatureServeExplorer.pdf. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  8. ^ ’’’Froese, Rainer.’’’ 2010. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum.’’ http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=3466. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  9. ^ ’’’Environmental Protection Agency.’’’ 2011. A Watershed Approach. http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/approach.cfm. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  • http://www.bio.utk.edu/hulseylab/Fishlist.html
  • Clabaugh, Jerod P., K. Emily Knott, Robert M. Wood, and Richard L. Mayden. 1996. Systematics and Biogeography of Snubnose Darters, Genus Etheostoma (Teleostei: Percidae) from the Black Warrior River System, Alabama. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24: 119-134.
  • ’’’Environmental Protection Agency.’’’ 2011. A Watershed Approach. http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/approach.cfm. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  • ’’’Froese, Rainer.’’’ 2010. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum.’’ http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?ID=3466. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  • ’’’Fuller, Pam, and Matt Neilson.’’’ 2011. ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.

http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=817 RevisionDate: 8/5/2011.

  • Greenberg, Larry A. 1988. Interactive Segregation between the Stream Fishes Etheostoma simoterum and E. rufilinatum. Oikos 51: 193-202.
  • Heins, David C. 2001. Variation in Clutch Size and Ovum Size of the Snubnose Darter, Etheostoma simoterum (Cope), from Two Populations in Tennessee. The American Midland Naturalist 145: 74-79.
  • Jones, Jess W. 2010. Life History and Demographics of the Endangered Birdwing Pearlymussel (Lemiox rimosus) (Bivalvia: Unionidae). The American Midland Naturalist 163: 335-350.
  • Jones, Jess W., and Richard J. Neves. 2002. Life History and Propagation of the Endangered Fanshell Pearlymussel, Cyprogenia stegaria Rafinesque (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 21: 76-88.
  • Jones, Jess W., Richard J. Neves, Steven A. Ahlstedt, and Rachel A. Mair. 2004. Life history and propagation of the endangered dromedary pearlymussel (Dromus dromas) (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23: 515-525.
  • ’’’Mendelson, Tamra C., and Matthew K. Wong.’’’ 2010. AFLP phylogeny of the snubnose darters and allies (Percidae: ‘’Etheostom’’) provides resolution across multiple levels of divergence. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 57: 1253-1259.
  • NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available at http://www.tnfish.org/SpeciesFishInformation_TWRA/Research/SnubnoseDarterEtheostomaSimoterum_NatureServeExplorer.pdf. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
  • ’’’Page, Lawrence M., and Richard L. Mayden.’’’ 1981. The Life History of the Tennessee Snubnose Darter, ‘’Etheostoma simoterum’’, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. Illinois Natural History Survey: Biological Notes 117: 1-11. http://www.archive.org/stream/lifehistoryoften117page#page/n3/mode/2up. (Accessed: November 20, 2011).
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  • Warren, Melvin L., Brooks M. Burr, Stephen J. Walsh, Henry L. Bart, Jr., Robert C. Cashner, David A. Etnier, Byron J. Freeman, Bernard R Kuhajda, Richard L. Mayden, Henry W. Robison, Stephen T. Ross, and Wayne C. Starnes. 2000. Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation Status of the Native Freshwater Fishes of the Southern United States. Fisheries 25: 7-31.



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