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| 1988–2007
| 1988–2007
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| rowspan=1
| rowspan=1| Cine-Chrome 40A
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| Double Regular 8 mm, tungsten
| Double Regular 8 mm, tungsten
| 2003-2006
| 2003-2006

Revision as of 03:23, 13 December 2011

This article is about the brand of film. For other uses, see Kodachrome (disambiguation).
Kodachrome
MakerEastman Kodak
Speed6/9°, 10/11°, 25/15°, 40/17°, 64/19°, 200/24°
TypeColor slide
ProcessK-14 process
Format16mm, 8mm, Super 8, 35mm movie, 35mm still, 120, 110, 126, 828, 4×5, 5x7, 8x10, 11x14, 2.25x3.25, 3.25x4.25, 6.5cm x 9cm, 9cm x 12cm[1]
Introduced1935
Discontinued2002 (ISO 25), 2005 (ISO 40 in 8 mm), 2007 (ISO 200), 2009 (ISO 64)

Kodachrome is the trademarked brand name of a type of color reversal film that was manufactured by Eastman Kodak from 1935 to 2009.[2]

Background

Kodachrome was the first successfully mass-marketed color still film using a subtractive color method, in contrast to earlier additive "screenplate" methods such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, and was the oldest surviving brand of color film for many years.

Kodachrome film was manufactured for 74 years in various formats to suit still and motion picture cameras, including 8 mm, Super 8, 16 mm, and 35 mm for movies and 35 mm, 120, 110, 126, 828, and large format for still photography. For many years, it was used for professional color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. The film was sold with processing included in the purchase price except in the United States, where a 1954 legal ruling ended that practice.

Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity. Because of these qualities, Kodachrome was used by professional photographers like Steve McCurry, Peter Guttman[3] and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his well-known 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, the "Afghan Girl" for the National Geographic magazine.[4] It was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second. Prints for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome.[5]

Competing slide films, such as Fujichrome and Kodak Ektachrome, use the E-6 process which is simpler, less expensive, more quickly processed and more widely available; this eroded Kodachrome's market share as the quality of competing films improved during the 1980s and 1990s. As digital photography reduced the demand for all varieties of film in the first decade of the 21st century, Kodachrome sales further declined. On 22 June 2009, Kodak announced the end of Kodachrome production, citing declining demand.[3]

During its heyday, many Kodak and independent laboratories processed Kodachrome; by 2010, one Kodak-certified facility remained: Dwayne's Photo in Parsons, Kansas.[6] On 14 July 2010, it was announced[7] that the last roll of Kodachrome to be manufactured was developed by Dwayne's for photographer Steve McCurry on assignment for National Geographic. The 36 slides will be permanently housed at the Eastman House in Rochester, New York[7] and most of the pictures have been published on the Internet by Vanity Fair magazine.

History

The additive methods of color photography, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor,[8] were the first practical color processes; however, these had disadvantages. A réseau filter was made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light upon projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided.[9]

Kodachrome was invented in the early 1930s by two professional musicians, Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes;[10] hence the comment that "Kodachrome was made by God and Man".[11][12] It was first sold in 1935 as 16 mm movie film.[13] In 1936 it was made available in 8 mm movie film, and slide film in both 35mm and 828 formats.[14] Kodachrome would eventually be produced in a wide variety of film formats including 120 and 4x5, and in ISO/ASA values ranging from 8 to 200.[15]

Kodachrome was the subject of Paul Simon's song "Kodachrome", and Kodachrome Basin State Park in Utah was named after it, becoming the only park named for a brand of film.[4]

Characteristics

"A busy 1949 city scene in London, England, with black vintage vehicles, red London buses and many pedestrians. Buildings advertise "Wills's Gold Flake Cigarettes" and "Craven A" cigarettes.
Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of Shaftesbury Avenue from Piccadilly Circus, in the West End of London, circa 1949.

Emulsion

Unlike transparency and negative color films with dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion layers, Kodachrome had none. The dye couplers were added during processing.[16] Without couplers, the emulsion layers were thinner, causing less light scattering and allowing the film to record a sharper image.[17] A Kodachrome slide is discernible by an easily-visible relief image on the emulsion side of the film.[18] Kodachrome has a dynamic range of around 8 stops, or 3.6-3.8D.[19]

Color

Kodachrome was the first commercially successful color film. Its particular color cast was ubiquitous in color photography for several decades after its introduction in the 1930s.[20] Even after the introduction of other successful professional color films, such as Fuji Velvia, some professionals continued to prefer Kodachrome, and maintain that it still has certain advantages over digital:[21]

If you have good light and you’re at a fairly high shutter speed, it’s going to be a brilliant color photograph. It had a great color palette. It wasn’t too garish. Some films are like you’re on a drug or something. Velvia made everything so saturated and wildly over-the-top, too electric. Kodachrome had more poetry in it, a softness, an elegance. With digital photography, you gain many benefits [but] you have to put in post-production. [With Kodachrome,] you take it out of the box and the pictures are already brilliant.

Archival stability

When stored in darkness, Kodachrome's long-term stability under ordinary conditions is superior to other types of color film; images on Kodachrome slides over fifty years old retain accurate color and density. It has been calculated that the yellow dye, the least stable, would suffer a 20% loss of dye in 185 years.[22] This is because developed Kodachrome retains no unused color couplers. However, Kodachrome's color stability under bright light, for example during projection, is inferior to E-6 process slide films; Kodachrome's fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome's two and a half hours.[23]

Unprocessed Kodachrome may survive long periods between exposure and processing. In one case, several rolls were exposed and then lost in a Canadian forest; upon discovery 19 years later they were processed and the slides were usable.[24]

Digital scanning and resolution

A 35mm Kodachrome transparency, like other 35mm transparencies on films of comparable ISO rating, contains an equivalent of approximately 20 megapixels of data in the 24 mm x 36 mm image.[25] Scanning Kodachrome transparencies can be problematic because of the film's tendency to scan with a blue color cast.[19] Some software producers deliver special Kodachrome color profiles with their software to avoid this. However, an IT8 calibration with a special Kodachrome calibration target is necessary for accurate color reproduction.[26]

Dust, scratches, and fingerprints on the slide are typically detected and removed by a scanner's software. Many scanners use an additional infrared channel to detect defects, as the long wave infrared radiation passes through the film but not through dust particles. Kodachrome interacts with this infrared channel in two ways. The absorption of the cyan dye extends into the near IR region, and thus this layer is opaque to IR.[27] Kodachrome also has a pronounced relief image that can affect the IR channel. These effects can sometimes cause a slight loss of sharpness in the scanned image when Digital ICE or a similar infrared channel dust removal function is used.[28]

Processing of Kodachrome films

Main article: K-14 process
"A square white plastic frame, bearing the red text "Kodachrome" and a red logo bearing the word "Kodak", surrounds a portrait (rotated 90 degrees counter-clockwise) of a young woman wearing a white hat. She stands in front of a wooden building. Two triangular flags hang to the left, and the text "Madam M Palmist" is visible in the centre-top."
A typical plastic 35mm Kodachrome slide from the 1990s showing logo and text on the reverse side.

Kodachrome required complex processing that could not practicably be carried out by amateurs.[29] The process has undergone four significant alterations since its inception.[30] The final version of the process, designated K-14, was introduced in 1974. The process was complex and exacting, requiring technicians with extensive chemistry training, as well as large, difficult-to-operate machinery.

First, the antihalation backing was removed with an alkaline solution and wash. The film was then developed using a developer containing phenidone and hydroquinone, which formed three superimposed negative images, one for each primary color.[30]

After washing out the first developer, the film underwent re-exposure and redevelopment. Re-exposure fogged the silver halides that were not developed in the first developer. A color developer then developed the fogged image, and its exhaustion products reacted with a color coupler to form a dye in the color complementary to the layer's sensitivity.

The layers were developed in the following order: The red-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the base of the film with red light, then redeveloped forming cyan dye. The blue-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the emulsion side of the film with blue light, then redeveloped forming yellow dye. The green-sensitive layer was redeveloped with a developer that chemically fogged it and formed magenta dye.[30]

Following color development, the metallic silver was converted back to silver halide using a bleach solution. The film was then fixed, making these silver halides soluble and leaving only the final dye image. The film was finally washed to remove residual chemicals which might cause deterioration of the dye image, then dried, cut, and mounted in slide frames.[30]

Prepaid processing

Due to the complexity of its processing, Kodachrome was initially sold at a price which included processing by Kodak.[31] An envelope was included with the film, in which the photographer would send the exposed film to the nearest of several designated Kodak laboratories.[32] The film was processed, mounted in 2" x 2" cardboard mounts in the case of 35 mm slides, and returned by mail to the sender.

After 1954, as a result of the case United States v. Eastman Kodak Co., this practice was prohibited in the United States as anticompetitive. Kodak entered into a consent decree, ending this product tying practice in the United States, and allowed independent processing laboratories to acquire the chemicals needed to process Kodachrome films.[33][34]

Decline

The use of slide film in general declined in the 1980s and 1990s which, combined with competition from Fuji's Velvia slide film, caused a drop in Kodachrome sales.[4] Kodachrome products were gradually discontinued and on June 22, 2009, Kodak announced Kodachrome would no longer be manufactured.[35][36]

Many Kodachrome processing laboratories, both Kodak-owned and independent, closed because of the decreasing volume of business. The loss of processing availability further accelerated the fall in Kodachrome sales.[4] On 25 July 2006, extensive documentation about Kodak's Lausanne Kodachrome lab's impending closure was sent to the European Parliament by the Dutch office of the European Parliament because, although located in Switzerland, the facility served all of Europe and its closure would affect European photographers. The Parliamentary committees for Culture and Education,[37] and for Internal Market and Consumer Protection[38] studied the matter.

In 1999 [39] Kodak attempted to increase the availability of K-14 processing through the K-Lab program, where small labs equipped with smaller Kodak processing machines would supplement Kodak's own processing services.[40] This effort did not endure; all the K-labs were closed by 2005.[39]

Cessation of processing

In the final years, Kodak subcontracted the processing work to Dwayne's Photo, an independent facility in Kansas, which was the world's last Kodachrome processing facility.[41] Dwayne's processing of 35 mm films was fully endorsed by Kodak, but Dwayne's Super-8 process was not endorsed because it required more agitation.[41] Films sent for processing in the U.S. were mailed directly to Dwayne's, while those sent for processing in Europe were sent to the Lausanne facility's address and forwarded to Dwayne's.[42]

Dwayne's Photo announced in late 2010 that it would process all Kodachrome rolls received at the lab by 30 December 2010, after which further processing would cease.[43][44][45] The end of professional processing meant the end of the Kodachrome era. As Dwayne's final processing deadline approached, thousands of stored-up rolls of film were sent in for processing.[46] [45] Once film received by the deadline had been developed, the world's last K-14 processing machine was taken out of service.[47] The final roll to be processed was exposed by Dwayne Steinle, owner of Dwayne's Photo.[47][48]

Though Kodachrome can no longer be processed in color, it can be processed in black and white by some labs that specialise in obsolete processes and old film processing. Experiments in order to develop Kodachrome in colors again are being planned.[citation needed]

Discontinuation

The Kodachrome product range diminished progressively through the 1990s and 2000s.

  • Kodachrome 25 was discontinued in 2002. Many point to the introduction of Velvia or the decline in quality of processing as the reason for its demise.[49]
  • Kodachrome 40 in the Super 8 movie format was discontinued in June 2005,[50] despite protests from filmmakers.[51] Kodak launched a replacement color reversal film in the Super 8 format, Ektachrome 64T, which uses the common E-6 processing chemistry.[52]
  • Kodachrome 200 was discontinued in November 2006. The last emulsion batch was numbered 2672, labeled with an expiration date of September 2008.[53]
  • Kodachrome 64 and Kodachrome 64 Professional 135 format were discontinued in June 2009.[54][55] The last emulsion batch was numbered 1563, labeled with an expiration date of November 2010.

Product timeline

Film Date
Kodachrome film 16 mm, daylight (ASA 10) & Type A (ASA 16) 1935–1962
8 mm, daylight (ASA 10) & Type A (ASA 16) 1936–1962
35 mm and 828, daylight & Type A 1936–1962
Kodachrome Professional film (sheets) daylight (ASA 8) and Type B (ASA 10) 1938–1951
K-11 process
Kodachrome film 35 mm and 828, Type F (ASA 12) 1955–1962
Kodachrome Professional film 35 mm, Type A (ASA 16) 1956–1962
Kodak Color Print Material Type D (slide duping film) 1955–1957
K-12 process
Kodachrome II film 16 mm, daylight (ASA 25) and Type A (ASA 40) 1961–1974
8 mm, daylight (ASA 25) and Type A (ASA 40) 1961–1974
S-8, Type A (ASA 40) 1965–1974
35 mm and 828, daylight (ASA 25/early) (ASA 64/late) 1961–1974
Professional, 35 mm, Type A (ASA 40) 1962–1978
Kodachrome-X film 35 mm (ASA 64) 1962–1974
126 format 1963–1974
110 format 1972–1974
K-14 process
Kodachrome 25 film 35 mm, daylight 1974–2001
Movie film, 16 mm, daylight 1974–2002
Movie film, 8 mm, daylight 1974–1992
Professional film, 35 mm, daylight 1983–1999
Kodachrome 40 film 35 mm, Type A 1978–1997
Movie film, 16 mm, Type A 1974–2006
Movie film, S-8, Type A 1974–2005
Sound Movie film, S-8, Type A 1974–1998
Movie film, 8 mm, Type A 1974–1992
Kodachrome 64 35 mm, daylight 1974–2009
126 format, daylight 1974–1993
110 format, daylight 1974–1987
Professional film, 35 mm, daylight 1983–2009
Professional film, daylight, 120 format 1986–1996
Kodachrome 200 Professional film, 35 mm, daylight 1986–2004
35 mm, daylight 1988–2007
Cine-Chrome 40A Double Regular 8 mm, tungsten 2003-2006

[15]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Brilliant vintage Hollywood 8 x 10 Kodachromes sell on ebay". Photo.net. 26 February 2011. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
  2. ^ Carma Wadley (25 June 1999). "Range of Color: Kodachrome Basin Lives up to Name it Got by Accident". Deseret News Publishing Company. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  3. ^ a b "Kodak: A Thousand Words - A Tribute to KODACHROME: A Photography Icon". Kodak. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  4. ^ a b c d Ben Dobbin (22 September 2008). "The digital age takes Kodachrome away". USA Today. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
  5. ^ "BFI | Film & TV Database | Coronation Regina (1953)". Ftvdb.bfi.org.uk. 16 April 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  6. ^ Jim Axelrod (26 December 2010). "Kodachrome: The Legendary Film's Last Days". CBS News. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  7. ^ a b "Last Kodachrome roll processed in Parsons". The Wichita Eagle. 14 July 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
  8. ^ "Image Forming Materials - Tint, Tone and Other Colour Processes". National Film and Sound Archive. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
  9. ^ A.L.M. Sowerby (Ed) (1961). Dictionary of Photography: A Reference Book for Amateur and Professional Photographers (19th ed.). London: Iliffe Books Ltd.
  10. ^ Robert Tomsho (23 June 2009). "Kodak to Take Kodachrome Away". The Wall Street Journal. p. B6.
  11. ^ "Leopold Godowsky, Jr". Invent.org. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
  12. ^ "Leopold Mannes". Invent.org. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
  13. ^ "Color Movies Easy To Make With Aid Of New Film" Popular Mechanics, June 1935
  14. ^ "Kodak: History of Kodak: Milestones 1930 - 1959". Kodak. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
  15. ^ a b c Lane, William S. in Buzit-Tragni; et al. (25 January 2005). "Coatings on Kodachrome and Ektachrome Films: Appendix A — Timeline for the Kodak Kodachrome Films" (PDF). Retrieved 9 June 2009. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  16. ^ "Kodak Color Films" (PDF). Kodak. p. 37.
  17. ^ "Presentation to Rochester Photographic Historical Society".
  18. ^ "Kodak announces Kodachrome to be discontinued". Kodak.
  19. ^ a b Unknown author (26 March 2009). "LaserSoft Imaging Introduces the Perfect Kodachrome Workflow". Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 8 June 2009. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  20. ^ "Eastman Kodak kills its colour-true Kodachrome". Toronto Star. Jun 23 2009. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ David Friend (9 February 2011). "The Last Roll of Kodachrome—Frame by Frame!". Vanity Fair. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
  22. ^ The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs (Chapter5) (PDF). Wilhelm Imaging Research. p. 164. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  23. ^ "The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs (Chapter 6)" (PDF). Wilhelm Imaging Research. Retrieved 27 December 2006.
  24. ^ "Long Term Color Stability of Kodachrome". Huennebeck-online.de. 20 August 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  25. ^ Langford, Michael (2000). Basic Photography (7th Ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. p. 99. ISBN 0 240 51592 7.
  26. ^ David Brooks (June 2009). "Please Don't Take My Kodachrome Away; New & Better Profiled Kodachrome Scanning". Source Interlink Media. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  27. ^ "Scanner Technology". Kenrockwell.com. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  28. ^ "About Digital ICE Processing". Pearsonimaging.com. 8 November 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  29. ^ "Kodachrome: The Legendary Film's Last Days". CBS News. 26 December 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
  30. ^ a b c d "Processing Steps - Processing Kodachrome Film (PDF)" (PDF). Eastman Kodak Company. 2000. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
  31. ^ "FindLaw | Cases and Codes". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  32. ^ "Kodachrome Slide Dating Guide". Historicphotoarchive.com. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  33. ^ "Brief for the United States : U.S. v. Eastman Kodak Co". Usdoj.gov. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  34. ^ "1930-1959". Kodak.com. 15 May 1950. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  35. ^ "Kodak Retires Kodachrome Film". PhotographyBLOG. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
  36. ^ Kodak Retires KODACHROME Film; Celebrates Life of Oldest Film Icon in its Portfolio, Kodak Press Release, June 22, 2009
  37. ^ "Culture and Education Committee". European Parliament.[dead link‍]
  38. ^ "Internal Market and Consumer Protection". European Parliament.[dead link‍]
  39. ^ a b "75th Anniversary of Kodachrome, Presentation by Bill Lane to Photographic Historical Society". randrews4.com. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
  40. ^ "K-LAB Processors Improve KODACHROME Film Processing". Kodak.com. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  41. ^ a b "Slide Film Processing". Dwayne's Photo.
  42. ^ "KODACRHOME Processing Laboratories". Kodak. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
  43. ^ Sulzberger, A. G. (29 December 2010). "For Kodachrome Fans, Road Ends at Photo Lab in Kansas". The New York Times.
  44. ^ "Kodachrome--The end of an era". dwaynesphoto.com. Retrieved 27 November 2009.
  45. ^ a b "Kodachrome slide film rolls into history" USA Today, 30 December 2010
  46. ^ http://www.kansascity.com/2011/01/09/2572396/kodachrome-film-processing-to.html
  47. ^ a b For Kodachrome Fans, Road Ends at Photo Lab in Kansas A. G. Sulzberger, The New York Times, 12-29-2010
  48. ^ Kodachrome last remaining film roll developed in Kansas
  49. ^ "The Demise of Kodachrome 25". Unlimited Graphic Communication, Inc. May 2001. Retrieved 15 August 2007.
  50. ^ "Kodak News: Kodachrome 40 Movie film (Type A)/Super 8 Discontinued" (PDF). Kodak. July 2005. Retrieved 10 June 2006.
  51. ^ "Fans beg: Don't take Kodachrome away". International Herald Tribune. 1 June 2005. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
  52. ^ Unknown (10 May 2005). "Kodak Announces New Color Reversal Film Added to Portfolio". Penton Media, Inc. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  53. ^ 02:00 PM. "KL-200: The Elusive #2673 emulsion number? - kodachromeproject.com Forums". Kodachromeproject.com. Retrieved 18 September 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ "Sorry, Paul Simon, Kodak's axing Kodachrome". MSNBC Interactive News LLC. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
  55. ^ "KODACHROME Discontinuation Notice". Kodak. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2009.

Official Kodak information

Other resources

Processing of obsolete Kodachrome types K-11 and K-12:

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