Spiral galaxy: Difference between revisions
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These different hypotheses do not have to be mutually exclusive, as they may explain different types of spiral arms. |
These different hypotheses do not have to be mutually exclusive, as they may explain different types of spiral arms. |
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===Density wave model=== |
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{{see also|Density wave theory}} |
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[[Bertil Lindblad]] proposed that the arms represent regions of enhanced density (density waves) that rotate more slowly than the galaxy’s stars and gas. As gas enters a density wave, it gets squeezed and makes new stars, some of which are short-lived blue stars that light the arms. |
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[[File:spiral galaxy arms diagram.svg|thumb|right|Explanation of spiral galaxy arms.]] |
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This idea was developed into [[density wave theory]] by [[C. C. Lin]] and [[Frank Shu]] in 1964.<ref name="LinShu1964">{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=C. C. |authorlink= |coauthors=Shu, F. H. |year=1964 |month= August|title=On the spiral structure of disk galaxies. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=140 |pages=646–655 |bibcode=1964ApJ...140..646L |doi=10.1086/147955}}</ref> They suggested that the spiral arms were manifestations of spiral density waves, attempting to explain the large-scale structure of spirals in terms of a small-amplitude wave propagating with fixed angular velocity, that revolves around the galaxy at a speed different from that of the galaxy's gas and stars. |
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====Historical theory of Lin and Shu==== |
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The first acceptable theory for the spiral structure was devised by C. C. Lin and Frank Shu in 1964. They suggested that the spiral arms were manifestations of spiral density waves, they assumed that the stars travel in slightly elliptical orbits, and that the orientations of their orbits is correlated i.e. the ellipses vary in their orientation (one to another) in a smooth way with increasing distance from the galactic center. This is illustrated in the diagram. It is clear that the elliptical orbits come close together in certain areas to give the effect of arms. Stars therefore do not remain forever in the position that we now see them in, but pass through the arms as they travel in their orbits.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}} |
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====Star formation caused by density waves==== |
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The following hypotheses exist for star formation caused by density waves: |
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*As gas clouds move into the density wave, the local mass density increases. Since the criteria for cloud collapse (the [[Jeans instability]]) depends on density, a higher density makes it more likely for clouds to collapse and form stars. |
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*As the compression wave goes through, it triggers star formation on the leading edge of the spiral arms. |
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*As clouds get swept up by the spiral arms, they collide with one another and drive [[shock waves]] through the gas, which in turn causes the gas to collapse and form stars. |
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[[File:NGC 3810 (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg|thumb|The bright galaxy NGC 3810 demonstrates classical spiral structure in this very detailed image from Hubble. Credit: ESA/Hubble and NASA.]] |
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===More young stars in spiral arms=== |
===More young stars in spiral arms=== |
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Revision as of 14:12, 12 March 2012
A spiral galaxy is a certain kind of galaxy originally described by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae[1] and, as such, forms part of the Hubble sequence. Spiral galaxies consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.
Spiral galaxies are named for the spiral structures that extend from the center into the disk. The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the surrounding disk because of the young, hot OB stars that inhabit them.
Roughly two-thirds of all spirals are observed to have an additional component in the form of a bar-like structure,[2] extending from the central bulge, at the ends of which the spiral arms begin. Our own Milky Way has recently (in the 1990s) been confirmed to be a barred spiral, although the bar itself is difficult to observe from our position within the Galactic disk.[3] The most convincing evidence for its existence comes from a recent survey, performed by the Spitzer Space Telescope, of stars in the Galactic center.[4]
Together with irregular galaxies, spiral galaxies make up approximately 60% of galaxies in the local Universe.[5] They are mostly found in low-density regions and are rare in the centers of galaxy clusters.[6]
Structure
Spiral galaxies consist of four distinct components:
- A flat, rotating disc of (mostly newly created) stars and interstellar matter
- A central stellar bulge of mainly older stars, which resembles an elliptical galaxy
- A near-spherical halo of stars, including many in globular clusters
- A supermassive black hole at the very center of the central bulge
The relative importance, in terms of mass, brightness and size, of the different components varies from galaxy to galaxy.
Spiral arms
Spiral arms are regions of stars that extend from the center of spiral and barred spiral galaxies. These long, thin regions resemble a spiral and thus give spiral galaxies their name. Naturally, different classifications of spiral galaxies have distinct arm-structures. Sc and SBc galaxies, for instance, have very "loose" arms, whereas Sa and SBa galaxies have tightly wrapped arms (with reference to the Hubble sequence). Either way, spiral arms contain a great many young, blue stars (due to the high mass density and the high rate of star formation), which make the arms so remarkable.
Galactic bulge
A bulge is a huge, tightly packed group of stars. The term commonly refers to the central group of stars found in most spiral galaxies.
Using the Hubble classification, the bulge of Sa galaxies is usually composed of population II stars, that are old, red stars with low metal content. Further, the bulge of Sa and SBa galaxies tends to be large. In contrast, the bulges of Sc and SBc galaxies are much smaller and are composed of young, blue Population I stars. Some bulges have similar properties to those of elliptical galaxies (scaled down to lower mass and luminosity); others simply appear as higher density centers of disks, with properties similar to disk galaxies.
Many bulges are thought to host a supermassive black hole at their centers. Such black holes have never been directly observed, but many indirect proofs exist. In our own galaxy, for instance, the object called Sagittarius A* is believed to be a supermassive black hole. There is a tight correlation between the mass of the black hole and the velocity dispersion of the stars in the bulge, the M-sigma relation.
Galactic spheroid
The bulk of the stars in a spiral galaxy are located either close to a single plane (the galactic plane) in more or less conventional circular orbits around the center of the galaxy (the galactic center), or in a spheroidal galactic bulge around the galactic core.
However, some stars inhabit a spheroidal halo or galactic spheroid, a type of galactic halo. The orbital behaviour of these stars is disputed, but they may describe retrograde and/or highly inclined orbits, or not move in regular orbits at all. Halo stars may be acquired from small galaxies which fall into and merge with the spiral galaxy—for example, the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy is in the process of merging with the Milky Way and observations show that some stars in the halo of the Milky Way have been acquired from it.
Unlike the galactic disc, the halo seems to be free of dust, and in further contrast, stars in the galactic halo are of Population II, much older and with much lower metallicity than their Population I cousins in the galactic disc (but similar to those in the galactic bulge). The galactic halo also contains many globular clusters.
The motion of halo stars does bring them through the disc on occasion, and a number of small red dwarf stars close to the Sun are thought to belong to the galactic halo, for example Kapteyn's Star and Groombridge 1830. Due to their irregular movement around the center of the galaxy—if they do so at all—these stars often display unusually high proper motion.
Origin of the spiral structure
The pioneer of studies of the rotation of the Galaxy and the formation of the spiral arms was Bertil Lindblad in 1925. He realized that the idea of stars arranged permanently in a spiral shape was untenable due to the "winding dilemma". Since the angular speed of rotation of the galactic disk varies with distance from the centre of the galaxy (via a standard solar system type of gravitational model), a radial arm (like a spoke) would quickly become curved as the galaxy rotates. The arm would, after a few galactic rotations, become increasingly curved and wind around the galaxy ever tighter. This is called the winding problem. Measurements in the late 1960s showed that the orbital velocity of stars in spiral galaxies with respect to their distance from the galactic center is indeed higher than expected from Newtonian dynamics but still cannot explain the stability of the spiral structure.
Since the 1960s, there have been two leading hypotheses or models for the spiral structures of galaxies:
- Star formation caused by density waves in the galactic disk of the galaxy.
- The SSPSF model – Star formation caused by shock waves in the interstellar medium.
These different hypotheses do not have to be mutually exclusive, as they may explain different types of spiral arms.
More young stars in spiral arms
The arms appear brighter because there are more young stars (hence more massive, bright stars). These massive, bright stars also die out quickly, which would leave just the darker background stellar distribution behind the waves, hence making the waves visible.
While stars, therefore, do not remain forever in the position that we now see them in, they also do not follow the arms. The arms simply appear to pass through the stars as the stars travel in their orbits.
Alignment of spin axis with cosmic voids
Recent results suggest that the orientation of the spin axis of spiral galaxies is not a chance result, but instead they are preferentially aligned along the surface of cosmic voids.[7] That is, spiral galaxies tend to be oriented at a high angle of inclination relative to the large-scale structure of the surroundings. They have been described as lining up like "beads on a string," with their axis of rotation following the filaments around the edges of the voids.[8]
Spiral arms seen as transient structures
In April 2011 a presentation to the Royal Astronomical Society's April 2011 National Astronomy Meeting in Llandudno, Wales by postgraduate student Robert Grand, suggested that spiral arms do not rotate rigidly at a constant angular velocity about the galactic centre. This contradicts a 50 year old theory called Spiral Density Wave Theory (SDWT), which states that the spiral arm pattern we see is actually a wave pattern, that rotates independently of star and inter-stellar matter that follow the standard rotation curve of the galaxy. Stars that move faster than the arms can overtake them and move through them. Consequently, stars outside this radius move slower than the arm and fall behind. Rather than a long-lived rigidly rotating wave pattern found in SDWT, Grand's simulations suggested that the arms rotate with a pattern speed that decreases with radius, and that they are transient features, with some arms breaking up and new ones being formed over periods of 80 to 100 million years.[9] Instead of stars rotating independently of the arm pattern, they co-rotate at every radius, as the arm pattern speed traces very well the rotation curve of matter. The destruction of the arms is due to a declining pattern speed, which means that the arms begin to wind up and so break to avoid the well-known Wind-Up problem. This pattern of arm formation and destruction has not been observed in real galaxies, mainly because this pattern would take tens of millions of years to observe from start to finish. As observers, we can only observe what is a relative "snapshot" of a galaxy's evolution, and since there are always new arms forming as older ones die, there is always a spiral pattern present. Therefore, a simple glance at a galaxy will not yield evidence either way. A real observational contribution will come from the Gaia satellite, due to be launched in the coming years.
Gravitationally aligned orbits
In a recent paper published in Proc. Roy. Soc. A[10], Charles Francis and Erik Anderson showed from observations of motions of over 20 000 local stars (within 300 parsecs), that stars do move along spiral arms, and described how mutual gravity between stars causes orbits to align on logarithmic spirals. When the theory is applied to gas, collisions between gas clouds generate the molecular clouds in which new stars form, and evolution towards grand-design bisymmetric spirals is explained.
Spiral nebula
"Spiral nebula" is an old term for a spiral galaxy. Until the early 20th century, most astronomers believed that objects like the Whirlpool Galaxy were just one more form of nebula that were within our own Milky Way galaxy. The idea that they might instead be other galaxies, independent of the Milky Way, was the subject of the Great Debate of 1920, between Heber Curtis of Lick Observatory and Harlow Shapley of Mt. Wilson Observatory. In 1926, Edwin Hubble[11] observed Cepheid variables in several spiral nebulae, including the Andromeda Galaxy, proving that they are, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own. The term "spiral nebula" has since fallen into disuse.
Milky Way
The Milky Way was once considered an ordinary spiral galaxy. Astronomers first began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy in the 1990s.[12] Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005[13] which showed the galaxy's central bar to be larger than previously suspected.
Famous examples
See also
Components
Classification
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Other
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References
- ^ Hubble, E. P. (1936). The Realm of the Nebulae. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300025009.
- ^ D. Mihalas (1968). Galactic Astronomy. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716703266.
- ^ Ripples in a Galactic Pond, Scientific American, October 2005
- ^ Benjamin, R. A.; Churchwell, E.; Babler, B. L.; Indebetouw, R.; Meade, M. R.; Whitney, B. A.; Watson, C.; Wolfire, M. G.; Wolff, M. J.; et al. (2005). "First GLIMPSE Results on the Stellar Structure of the Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 630 (2): L149–L152. arXiv:astro-ph/0508325. Bibcode:2005ApJ...630L.149B. doi:10.1086/491785.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|first=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Loveday, J. (1996). "The APM Bright Galaxy Catalogue". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 278 (4): 1025–1048. arXiv:astro-ph/9603040. Bibcode:1996MNRAS.278.1025L.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Dressler, A. (1980). "Galaxy morphology in rich clusters — Implications for the formation and evolution of galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal. 236: 351–365. Bibcode:1980ApJ...236..351D. doi:10.1086/157753.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Trujillo, I. (2006). "Detection of the Effect of Cosmological Large-Scale Structure on the Orientation of Galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal. 640 (2): L111–L114. arXiv:astro-ph/0511680. Bibcode:2005astro.ph.11680T. doi:10.1086/503548.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Alder, Robert (2006). "Galaxies like necklace beads". Astronomy magazine. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
- ^ "New theory of evolution for spiral galaxy arms". PhysOrg.com. April 21, 2011. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
- ^ Proc. R. Soc. A 8 November 2009 vol. 465 no. 2111 3425-3446
- ^ Hubble, E. P. (1926). "A spiral nebula as a stellar system: Messier 33". The Astrophysical Journal. 63: 236–274. Bibcode:1926ApJ....63..236H. doi:10.1086/142976.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Chen, W.; Gehrels, N.; Diehl, R.; Hartmann, D.; Gehrels; Diehl; Hartmann (1996). "On the spiral arm interpretation of COMPTEL 26Al map features". Space Science Reviews. 120: 315–316. Bibcode:1996A&AS..120C.315C.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ McKee, Maggie (August 16, 2005). "Bar at Milky Way's heart revealed". New Scientist. Retrieved 2009-06-17.
External links
- Giudice, G.F.; Mollerach, S.; Roulet, E. (1994). "Can EROS/MACHO be detecting the galactic spheroid instead of the galactic halo?". Physical Review D. 50 (4): 2406–2413. arXiv:astro-ph/9312047. Bibcode:1994PhRvD..50.2406G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.50.2406.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Stephens, Tim (March 6, 2007). "AEGIS survey reveals new principle governing galaxy formation and evolution". UC Santa Cruz. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- Spiral Galaxies @ SEDS Messier pages
- SpiralZoom.com, an educational website about Spiral Galaxies and other spiral formations found in nature. For high school & general audience.
- Spiral Structure explained
- GLIMPSE: the Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire
