Anne Boleyn

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A portrait of Anne painted some years after her death.

Anne Boleyn, Marchioness of Pembroke (c.1501/1507–19 May 1536), also called Ann Bolin and Anne Bullen, (the original medieval English pronounciation) was the second wife and queen consort of Henry VIII and mother of Queen Elizabeth I.

Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and marriage to Anne was part of the complex beginning of the considerable political and religious upheaval which was the English Reformation, with Anne herself actively promoting the cause of Church Reform.

She is particularly remembered because she was beheaded on charges of adultery and treason on 19 May 1536.

The birth controversy

Six wives of Henry VIII
and years of marriage

Catherine of Aragon
m. 1509–1533

Anne Boleyn
m. 1533–1536

Jane Seymour
m. 1536–1537

Anne of Cleves
m. 1540

Catherine Howard
m. 1540–1542

Catherine Parr
m. 1543–1547

Historians cannot agree when Anne Boleyn was born. An Italian historian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499; whilst Sir Thomas More's son-in-law suggested a much later date – 1512. Nowadays the debate centres around two key dates: 1501 and 1507. Two great authorities on the period, Eric Ives and Retha Warnicke — both of whom have written biographies of Anne — disagree. Ives promotes the 1501 date, whilst Warnicke believes the later 1507 is correct. It is extremely unlikely that Anne would have been over thirty at the time of her marriage, because such an age was considered unhealthy for a first-time mother. There is, however, a letter from Anne in about 1514 which, some people believe, suggests she was a teenager when she wrote it. This is hardly conclusive and a full examination of the letter is still required, as both sides currently claim it as supporting evidence. The debate may never be fully solved since parish records chronicling precise dates of birth were not kept until the time of Elizabeth I. Some other writers, like Paul Friedmann, Norah Lofts and Hester W. Chapman, all suggested that a birthday somewhere between 1501 and 1507 might be the safest guess – such as 1505. The Dictionary of National Biography opts for c.1500, entirely dismissing the claims of 1507.

Childhood and family

Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire and 1st Earl of Ormonde, and his beautiful wife Lady Elizabeth Boleyn (née Lady Elizabeth Howard), daughter of the 2nd Duke of Norfolk. It is not known for certain where she was born – but it was either at her family's mansion of Blickling Hall in Norfolk or at their favourite home of Hever Castle in Kent. It was rumoured later in her life that she had been born with six fingers on her left hand (a sign of the devil), probably as a reaction by Catholics following Henry VIII's separation from the church of Rome. There are two known siblings of Anne. Her sister Mary was probably a little younger than she was and her brother George may have been older. The controversy about the order of the children is described by Ives (2005 pp16-17). Some claim Mary was younger than Anne, some claim older. George was probably the youngest, having been married last (other than Anne, who was, of course, courting the king at the time.)

In later life, Anne did not have a particularly affectionate relationship with her father but in her childhood she was anxious to please him. Her relationship with her sister Mary was turbulent because Anne disagreed with Mary's second husband (who was far below her- a common soldier) and the two were not on speaking terms at the time of Anne's death. Anne enjoyed a much happier relationship with her mother and her brother, both of whom she was very close to.

The Boleyns were not high nobility, and had only held power for four generations. Anne's father was very lucky to have married into the powerful Howard family. Anne had a very powerful aristocratic heritage - her great-grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies and a knight. She was certainly more aristocratic than either Jane Seymour or Catherine Parr, two of Henry's other wives. She was also the elder cousin of Henry's fifth wife, Lady Catherine Howard.

Anne's father was a respected diplomat with a gift for languages and he had been a favourite of Henry VII and Henry VIII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. In Europe, Thomas Boleyn also won many admirers who were impressed with his professionalism and charm - including Archduchess Margaret of Austria, the daughter of Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor. Margaret was currently ruling the Netherlands on behalf of her father and caring for her nephew and three nieces. Margaret was so impressed with Thomas that she offered his youngest daughter Anne a place in her household. Ordinarily a girl had to be twelve years old to have such an honour, but Anne might have been somewhat younger as Margaret affectionately referred to her as "la Petite Boleyn"; this appointment, however, is often used as evidence that Anne was born in 1500, not 1507. Anne made a good impression in the Netherlands thanks to her good manners and her determination to work hard at her education. She is believed to have lived there from the spring of 1513 to the autumn of 1514.

Intellectually brilliant, Anne was attractive, but not a great beauty of the time, since she was considered too thin and too dark (although many people commented on her magnificent dark eyes and beautiful dark hair). Her sister, on the other hand, had traditional good looks - buxom, with fair hair, skin, and eyes. Anne's incredible fashion sense made up for it - she inspired many new trends and was probably the biggest fashion icon of her time. One Italian who met her in 1532 wrote that she was "not one of the handsomest women in the world", but others thought she was "competent belle" ("quite beautiful") and "young and good-looking". Her vivacity was also considered attractive. William Forrest, for instance - author of a contemporary poem about Catherine of Aragon - described her "passing excellent" skill as a dancer. "Here," he wrote, "was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go." In short, Anne was of average physical looks, but she definitely made the most of her natural appeal.

Anne's personality was complex, and it has been greatly distorted by those opposed to her marriage and religious views. She was a devout Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance Humanism (calling her a Protestant would be too strong). She was also a very loyal woman who gave generously to charity and, contrary to popular myth, she was extremely emotional. In her youth she was "sweet and cheerful", enjoyed gambling, drinking wine and gossiping. She was also brave and charismatic. Her personal motto loosely translated as "This will be, no matter who grumbles!" and "The Most Happy". She was also well-educated, clever, and charming. The French ambassador, Giles de la Pommeraye, was completely captivated by her and paid tribute to her formidable intellect and influence over English foreign policy. Yet Anne could also be extravagant, neurotic and bad-tempered.

Her time in the Netherlands was followed by some years in France where she was a favoured lady-in waiting to Queen Claude of France and also a translator whenever any English visitors arrived to meet the Queen. In the Queen's household, she completed her study of French as well as acquiring a thorough knowledge of French culture and etiquette. She also developed an interest in fashion and the religious philosophy which called for reform of the Church. Anne's European education ended in the winter of 1521 when she was summoned back to England on her father's orders. Anne sailed from Calais in January 1522.

A royal love affair

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Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII's first wife: the court headdress is still represented in the queens of Anglo-American playing cards.

On her return to England, Anne became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII's Spanish wife, who had failed to give Henry the son he desired. Catherine was popular with the people, but she had been inactive in politics and court life for some time.

Anne made her court début at a masquerade ball in March 1522, where she performed an elaborate dance, accompanied by the king's sister and his mistress, Anne's sister Mary. Five other ladies also had a part to play. Anne was known as the most fashionable and accomplished woman at the Court and she has been referred to as a "glass of fashion".

During this time, there was much talk of marrying Anne to one of her cousins, James Butler, the son of Sir Piers Butler. This was cancelled for uncertain reasons. It is presumed that Anne's father was secretly against the marriage, which had been engineered by the king's chief minister Thomas Wolsey, who had shown himself to be the enemy of the Boleyns in previous years.

Around 1522, Anne began being courted by Henry Percy, the son of the Earl of Northumberland. Some say that they became lovers, while others maintain that it was just a simple courtship. The latter was probably true. It would have been impossible to break their betrothal if it had been consummated and Anne had seen too many reputations ruined to risk hers.

The romance was broken off in 1523 when Lord Henry's father refused to sanction the marriage when he heard of it from Cardinal Wolsey. Legend has it that the liaison was secretly broken up because Henry desired Anne for himself[1]. It is impossible to say if this is true and historians are divided on the issue. Anne was briefly sent from court to Hever Castle in Kent. She spent the summer there before returning to Court and gathering a clique of female friends and male admirers for herself. She kept all of her admirers at arm's length and the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt complained that she was unobtainable and temperamental and headstrong, despite seeming demure and quiet. In 1525, Henry VIII also fell in love with her and began his pursuit.

Anne's sister, Mary, had previously been King Henry's mistress. There was no truth in the rumour that her two children were Henry’s bastards, since they were born after the affair had ended. There is also no truth in the much later gossip that Anne's mother had been Henry's mistress too. It seems that this scandalous accusation arose over a confusion of the Boleyn name with that of an early mistress of Henry's, Elizabeth Blount. Henry's affair with Mary had been ended for some time when he fell in love with Anne. In any case, she refused to become the King's mistress, and she effectively dodged his advances for over a year. The King fell deeper and deeper in love with her. Henry proposed marriage to her sometime in 1527 (probably around New Year), and after some hesitation, she agreed.

Henry VIII. He bombarded Anne with dozens of love-letters.

It is often thought that Henry's infatuation with Anne led him to seek a way to annul his existing marriage. However there is good evidence to suggest that Henry may well have made the decision to set aside his marriage with Catherine of Aragon solely because of her failure to bear him a male heir. He believed this was essential to prevent the collapse of the Tudor dynasty which had only been secured by his father Henry VII on winning the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.

At first, Anne was kept in the background, but by 1528 it was common knowledge that the King intended to marry her. She kept herself out of politics and she enjoyed a civil relationship with Henry’s chief minister Cardinal Wolsey, despite her father's hatred of him. At Court, she reveled in her newfound lifestyle. Henry paid for everything, and Anne was showered with magnificent gowns, jewels.

Anne had taken the decision not to sleep with Henry before their marriage since it meant that any children they had would be born out of legitimate wedlock. Anne was given her own staff, and several ladies-in-waiting to advertise the fact that she was now the next queen.

The power behind the throne

In 1529 it seemed as if Pope Clement VII was no nearer to granting Henry a divorce than he had been in 1527. Anne's spies reported that part of the problem was her supposed ally, Cardinal Wolsey, who had assured her that the Pope would help make her queen. A group of aristocrats opposed to Wolsey had been at court for over a decade and they saw Anne as the perfect instrument to help topple the Cardinal from power. Henry refused to be persuaded until Wolsey's promises once again proved unfounded, when one of the Pope's delegates in England refused to find in the King's favour and instead referred the matter back to Rome.

Anne maintained pressure until Wolsey was dismissed from public office in 1529. Henry insisted upon Wolsey returning to York and keeping out of politics. The Cardinal begged Anne to help him return to power, but although she used "kind words" in answer to his pleas her diplomacy meant nothing because she absolutely refused to help him. Wolsey then began a secret plot to enlist Papal support for himself. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and had it not been for Wolsey's death from a terminal illness in 1530 he may have been executed for treason. A year later, Catherine was banished from Court.

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Henry’s chief minister Cardinal Wolsey. He and Anne had once enjoyed a civil working relationship but she later insisted upon his exile.

With Wolsey gone, Anne became the most powerful person at Court. She had a great say over appointments and political matters. She clashed with the king’s new chief minister, Sir Thomas More, who was opposed to the religious reform which was the cause Anne and her brother supported. Her exasperation with the Vatican also persuaded her to promote a new alternative to Henry. She suggested that he should follow the advice of religious radicals like William Tyndale who denied Papal Authority and believed that the monarch should lead the Church of his own nation. When Willaim Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury died, Anne had her family's chaplain – Thomas Cranmer – appointed to the vacant position. She also facilitated the rise of Thomas Cromwell, who became the king's favourite new adviser. In later years, she would regret this.

During this period, Anne also played an enormous role in England's international position, by solidifying the French alliance. She established an excellent rapport with the French ambassador, Giles de la Pommeraye, who was captivated by her. With his help, she helped arrange an international conference at Calais in the winter of 1532 in which Henry hoped he could enlist the support of the French king for his marriage to Anne.

Before going to Calais Henry gave Anne the title of Marchioness of Pembroke. Anne's family also profited from this: her father, already Viscount Rochford, was created Earl of Ormonde and then Earl of Wiltshire. Thanks to Anne's intervention, her widowed sister Mary received an annual pension of £100, and Mary's son Henry Carey received a top-quality education in a prestigious Cistercian monastery.

Marriage

The conference was a political triumph, since the French government gave their support for Henry's re-marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service, finally enjoying a sexual relationship after seven years of frustration. Anne became pregnant within a few months.

Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen in time for Anne's coronation in June 1533. In defiance of the Pope, Cranmer now declared that the English Church was under Henry’s control, not Rome's. This was the famous "Break with Rome", which signalled the end of England's history as a subordinate Roman Catholic country. Few people were aware of the significance at the time and even fewer were prepared to defend the Pope's authority. Anne was delighted at this development. She was a Catholic, but she believed the Papacy was a corrupt and immoral influence on Christianity.

After her coronation in June 1533, Anne settled into a quiet routine to prepare for the birth of her child. She was deeply distressed when Henry was infatuated with a lady of the court, which provoked their first serious row. The girl was just a passing fancy, since Henry wanted nothing to jeopardise his wife's pregnancy.

Henry and Anne's child was born slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533 at the King's favourite palace of Greenwich. Disappointingly, the child was a girl who was christened Elizabeth in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. She was a given a splendid christening, but Anne feared that Catherine's daughter Mary would still have enough popular support to threaten Elizabeth’s position. Henry soothed Anne's fears by separating Mary from her many servants and sending her under guard to Hatfield House, where Princess Elizabeth was also given her own magnificent staff of servants. The country air was better for the baby's health, but Anne was an affectionate mother who regularly visited her daughter. Her visits were also the scenes of friction between Anne and Princess Mary who referred to Anne as "my father’s mistress", whilst Anne called Mary "that cursed bastard".

Life as Queen

Anne had a larger staff of servants than Catherine before her. There were over 250 servants to tend to Anne's personal needs, everything from priests to stable-boys. There were also over sixty maids-of-honour, who served Anne and accompanied her to social events. In return, their parents hoped the Queen would act as a good mistress and arrange a suitable marriage for them. Anne maintained a strict control over her maids' morals and spiritual well-being, chastising Margaret Shelton when she was caught writing poetry in her prayer book. She also employed several priests, who acted as her confessors, chaplains and religious advisers. Her favourite was the religious moderate Matthew Parker, who would become one of the chief architects of the modern Church of England under Anne's daughter Elizabeth I.

Matthew Parker was Anne's personal chaplain who was later her daughter's Archbishop of Canterbury.

Anne's reputation as a religious reformer spread through Europe and she was hailed as a heroine by Protestant figures – even in Germany, Martin Luther viewed her rise to the throne as a positive sign. She also saved the life of the French radical Nicolas Bourbon, who was sentenced to death by the French Inquisition. Anne appealed to the French Royal Family who spared Bourbon's life as a favour to the English queen. Bourbon would later refer to Anne as "the Queen whom God loves". Although Anne championed religious reform, especially translating the Bible into English, she did not challenge the core of Catholic belief which was the sacred doctrine of Transubstantiation. She was also a generous patron of charity, distributing alms to poor relief, and funds to educational foundations. Often, she and her ladies would sew shirts for the poor.

As queen, Anne presided over a magnificent court. In the 16th century, royals were expected to be extravagant in order to convey to their people the importance and strength of the monarchy. Anne certainly did this and she spent on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich-feather fans, riding equipment and the finest furniture and upholstery from across the world. Numerous palaces were renovated for the royal couple.

Anne's social life continued to be hectic and glamorous. A group of young gentlemen continued to visit the queen's apartments, where they flirted with her ladies-in-waiting and danced with the Queen when she wanted them to. At times, Anne too flirted with them but this had always been part of her nature. She never stepped beyond propriety, even going so far as to reprimand them if they became too jovial with either her or her maids. There was nothing new in this, for a group of young men had also served as Catherine of Aragon's adherents in the 1510s, it was only later that this behaviour would harm Anne's reputation.

Anne’s married life continued to lurch from storm to sunshine. The royal couple still enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Henry's frequent infidelities greatly wounded Anne who reacted with tears and rage to each new mistress. For his part, Henry found Anne’s strident opinions about religion and politics as intolerance and he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. Anne's second pregnancy resulted in the miscarriage in the summer of 1534.

The French Ambassador watched with amazement at the frosty atmosphere between the royal couple at a banquet in 1535. When he asked Anne about it later in the evening she laughed sadly and later told him that she felt utterly lonely and that she could feel the eyes of the entire Court spying on her.

This pressure inflamed Anne's temper and she clashed with her ambitious uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, when she discovered his loyalty to her was suspect. When her sister Mary secretly married a commoner, Anne reacted with fury by exiling Mary from her Court – this may also have had something to do with the queen's recent miscarriage, which had left her emotionally disoriented. Both sisters refused to apologise to one another – Mary wrote a letter proclaiming her steadfast love for her new husband.

Anne was also blamed for the tyranny of her husband’s government. When Henry's old adviser Sir Thomas More was beheaded in 1535 for refusing to break his oath of loyalty to Pope Paul III Anne was publicly blamed for pushing the King into signing his death warrant. This was untrue, however. Anne did not like More but there is no evidence that she had pushed for his death. It is unlikely she defended him, but he had acknowledged her as queen instead of Catherine. More died because he would not acknowledge Henry as Head of the Church of England.

1536

In January 1536, Catherine of Aragon died of cancer. Anne attempted to repair relations with Catherine's daughter, Mary, but she was once again rebuffed. At the time, none of this bothered Anne because she was pregnant once more. However, she was concerned about the king's latest mistress, Jane Seymour, who was one of Anne's maids. Once she found Jane wearing a jewel the King had given her, and Anne ripped it from Jane's neck, and slapped her. On another occasion, she walked into a room to find Henry and Jane in an embrace. A few days later, Henry was almost killed in a jousting accident. He was unconscious for two hours and Anne was initially told that he was dead. The stress of this may have contributed to the miscarriage of a son on 29 January 1536.

Thomas Cromwell: Anne's one-time ally who later arranged the plot to murder her.

This was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage. What happened next is one of the most controversial periods of English history. As Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry declared his marriage was accursed by God. Jane Seymour was moved into new apartments and Anne's brother was refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Jane Seymour's brother. She was irritable and depressed throughout the early months of 1536, fearing that she was about to be divorced.

The fall of Anne Boleyn

A Flemish musician in Anne's service named Mark Smeaton had been arrested and tortured by Thomas Cromwell. He had denied that he was Anne's lover, but under torture he confessed. He also provided the names of another courtier – Sir Henry Norreys (or Norris) – who was an old friend of Anne’s. He was arrested on May Day, but since he was an aristocrat he could not be tortured. Norris denied his guilt and swore that Anne was absolutely innocent. Another victim, Sir Francis Weston was arrested two days later. William Brereton, a groom of the King's privy chamber, was also apprehended on grounds of adultery, But it seems likely he was innocent and was in fact the victim of an old grudge against him held by Thomas Cromwell. Anne's own brother was also arrested on charges of incest and treason.

Anne Boleyn's terror was realized on 2 May 1536 when she was arrested at luncheon and taken up the River Thames to the Tower of London. In the Tower, Anne suffered a minor nervous breakdown demanding to know full details of her family's whereabouts and the charges against her.

The Tower of London

The four gentlemen were tried on 15 May 1536. Weston, Brereton and Norris publicly maintained their innocence and only the tortured Smeaton supported the government by pleading guilty. Two days later, Anne and George Boleyn were tried separately. Anne displayed great bravery at her trial and the spectators spread word of her courage. Popular suspicion against Henry and his mistress Jane Seymour was widespread and there was gossip attacking their behaviour. Anne was accused of adultery, incest, and high treason. One eyewitness reported that she gave "such wise and discreet answers". Although Anne was not popular by any means, her trial was so unfair that even the citizens protested. Even so, the King demanded her head and she was condemned to death.

On 17 May 1536 – the day Anne's "lovers" were publicly beheaded – Anne was stripped of her title as queen and her daughter Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. The following day Anne heard Mass for the last time, and publicly swore on the Blessed Sacrament that she was innocent. When her jailer William Kingston told her that she was to be given the privilege of being executed by a French expert with a sword she laughed. "I heard say that the executioner was very good," she said, "and I have a little neck." Kingston was amazed at the composure she now demonstrated – "She hath much joy in death", he wrote.

Anne dressed in an elegant grey dress and styled her famous dark hair on the morning of 19 May 1536. A crowd of officials had gathered on Tower Green to watch her execution. On the scaffold, Anne gave a short dignified speech. She did not admit to any guilt, but diplomatically avoided attacking the King in case he sought revenge on her surviving relatives. Anne then knelt down and was blindfolded with a linen handkerchief. The skilled swordsman took off her head with a quick clean sweep of his blade. Eye-witnesses claimed that, when her head was shown to the spectators, her eyes were open and she appeared to be attempting to speak. She was buried later that day in the nearby Chapel of Saint Peter-ad-Vincula.

Theories

Historians still debate over why these extraordinary events took place. There are four main theories about Anne Boleyn's demise, which the Oxford historian Steven J. Gunn described as historical "trench warfare".

• Guilty as charged: The English historian George W. Bernard is the only one to argue that Anne was guilty of adultery and treason. In 1991 he wrote, "Perhaps the safest guess for a modern historian is that Anne had indeed committed adultery with Norris and briefly with Mark Smeaton and that there was enough circumstantial evidence to cast reasonable doubt on the denials of the others."

• A romantic victim: The traditional theory has usually been that Anne was the victim of her husband’s vicious cruelty and that her failure to produce a son meant that Henry would stop at nothing to get rid of her. The famous Tudor historian, Sir Geoffrey Elton believed that "Anne and five men were put to death by due process of law because the king wished to marry again...Henry had now so far discarded scruple that to get his way he was prepared to appear as a cuckold and a victim of witchcraft."

• A political attack: The most popular theory is that Anne was removed by a palace plot created by expediency. An alliance with Spain was becoming desirable for various reasons, and Anne was so unpopular with Spain (for obvious reasons, since she had supplanted Catherine of Aragon on the throne), that her presence was a serious obstsacle to progress. Thomas Cromwell, her erstwhile supporter and the King's chancellor, therefore realized Anne would have to go. He was more than prepared to sacrifice five innocent men to do it (who were also Anne's friends and might, therefore, object to her destruction if they were left alive.) Anne's most well-respected biographer, Eric Ives, is the champion of this view: - "The plot against Anne Boleyn was most carefully calculated. Jane Seymour deliberately tantalised the king, at the same time poisoning his mind against Anne. The rest of the queen's enemies joined in the chorus when and how they could." The architect of the plot was Thomas Cromwell, the king's favourite adviser, who had angered the queen over his destruction of the monasteries and friendliness to the Seymours. He therefore wanted to get rid of Anne before she did to him what she had done to Thomas Wolsey in 1529.

• Sexual heresy: This theory, which comes from American historian Retha Warnicke is that the foetus Anne miscarried in early 1536 was deformed, provoking terror and disgust in the King. It was widely believed at the time that deformities resulted from God's anger — and obviously Henry could not be seen to be responsible. By accusing Anne of incest and adultery, his paternity of the deformed stillborn child could largely be disproved. "For many historians Anne remains the lady with an extra fingernail who was too flirtatious, even in a harmless courtly way, for her own safety and well-being. The result of these interpretations is that the responsibility for her tragic death lies with her, the victim, rather than with the king and his ministers who orchestrated her execution...she miscarried a defective fetus in 1536. It was because Henry viewed this mishap both as an evil omen, both for his lineage and his kingdom, that he had her accused of engaging in illicit sexual acts with five men."

Most historians are now divided between Ives's political theory and Warnicke's deformed foetus concept. However both have serious drawbacks. The 'deformed foetus' theory's principal failing is a near total absence of prima facie evidence. It is simply an idea, built on very little solid fact. The drawback of the political theory is principally that there is little evidence that Anne was about to strike against Cromwell, and indeed neither Cromwell or anyone else would have dared attack Anne without the King's consent; the idea of Cromwell hatching the plot himself is therefore unrealistic in the context of the time.

Perhaps the most plausible explanation would indeed be some form of blend of all of the above. Almost certainly Anne was innocent of adultery, nevertheless her flirtatious behaviour probably acted as a spur to the initiation of the charges. Again, it was probably becoming politically convenient to be rid of Anne, but this would not have progressed if the king himself had not also wished to be rid of her for his own reasons. If all these political and personal reasons collided at this time, no doubt Anne's fate was sealed.

Later reputation

The Protestant hero John Foxe who was one of Anne’s greatest defenders.

Henry VIII's conduct immediately following Anne's death was so openly joyful that it shocked even the Spanish Ambassador, Chapuis, who commented that the king seemed to wear his "horns very readily" (ie he seemed to welcome casting himself as a victim of adultery). there can be little doubt that the King was entirely glad that she was gone, or atvery least treated her passing with almost psychopathic indifference. After his death, Catholics and Protestants were quick to pass judgement on her life for religious and political purposes.

Nicholas Sander, an English catholic priest, who was opposed to the Church of England and advocated the deposing of Elizabeth, made a number of claims about Anne, which were reworked and published after his death in De origine et progressu schismatis Anglicani (The origin and progress of the English Schism), 1585.

Sanders was the first to claim in print that Anne was deformed, giving her the features of a witch. His allegations included the claims that Anne was a nymphomaniac with an excess of lovers; that she had a projecting tooth; and that she had six fingers (hexadactyly) on one hand. All these features were traditionally associated with witches, and there is no contemporary evidence to support such allegations, despite their popularity and inclusion in many modern textbooks.

Meanwhile, the Protestant writer John Foxe proclaimed that Anne had been a saint. He repeatedly stated that the Church of England owed its existence to Queen Anne, who was "the most beautiful of all in character, learning and piety".

William Shakespeare began the tradition of presenting Anne as a romantic lady in his 1613 play Henry VIII. The play focuses on the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and although Anne's part is small, she still possesses some of the most memorable lines in the play. She is also eulogised in her coronation scene, when one of the spectators refers to her as being a woman of exceptional beauty and piety. In order to avoid demonising Henry VIII at Anne's expense, the play ceased with the christening of their daughter, thus avoiding the controversial issue of Anne's death.

Donizetti's sympathetic and melodramatic opera Anna Bolena was first performed in Milan in 1830 to popular acclaim. It was revived in the 20th century, when the legendary opera singer Maria Callas took the title role and achieved some of her greatest operatic success.

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Maria Callas in the title role of Donizetti's opera Anna Bolena, performed in La Scala, Milan (1957)

Boleyn's life has been the subject of numerous biographies, novels, motion pictures, plays and operas.

Boleyn was first portrayed on the silver screen in 1911 by Laura Cowie in a silent movie adaptation of William Shakespeare's Henry VIII. Nine years later, in 1920, a German company produced Anna Boleyn with Henny Porten in the title role. The movie portrayed Anne as a frumpy, frightened creature pursued by a lecherous Henry VIII.

In 1933, the British cinematic classic The Private Life of Henry VIII had the day of Anne Boleyn's execution as its starting point. The beautiful Anglo-Indian actress, Merle Oberon, played the doomed queen preparing for her death. The film was hugely successful.

In 1952, American actress, Elaine Stewart, made a brief appearance in the film Young Bess - a highly-romanticized examination of Elizabeth I's teenage infatuation with Admiral Thomas Seymour. Anne Boleyn appeared briefly in two scenes before meeting her grisly end. Elizabeth was played by Jean Simmons and Seymour by Stewart Granger. As in the 1933 film, Henry was played by Charles Laughton.

Vanessa Redgrave had a cameo role as Anne Boleyn in A Man for All Seasons - a sympathetic look at the rise and fall of Sir Thomas More. Ms. Redgrave appeared briefly as a laughing, delighted Anne presiding over her wedding day festivities.

Three years later, Hal B. Wallis produced Anne of the Thousand Days which explored the life of Anne Boleyn from her engagement to Harry Percy until her death in 1536. French-Canadian actress, Genevieve Bujold, was nominated for an Oscar for her role as the fiery and feisty Anne Boleyn, as was her co-star, Richard Burton, who played Henry VIII. Sir Anthony Quayle co-starred as Cardinal Wolsey, with Greek actress, Irene Papas, as Catherine of Aragon.

In 1970, as part of the BBC six-part dramatic television series The Six Wives of Henry VIII, the episode Anne Boleyn was aired with Dame Dorothy Tutin as the Queen, and Australian actor Keith Michell as her husband. Patrick Troughton co-starred as the Duke of Norfolk. The drama focused on the fall of Anne Boleyn. In 1972, Barbara Kellerman appeared as Anne Boleyn in a television adaptation of Shakespeare's Henry VIII.

A year later, Charlotte Rampling appeared as Anne Boleyn in the movie Henry VIII and his Six Wives. Keith Michell reprised his 1970 role as Henry VIII. Although all six queens appeared, most time was spent on the story of Anne's cousin, Catherine Howard played by young actress Lynne Frederick.

Julia Marsen appeared as Anne Boleyn in Dr. David Starkey's documentary series The Six Wives of Henry VIII in 2001.

In January 2003, Jodhi May played Anne in a BBC drama The Other Boleyn Girl, based on a novel by Philippa Gregory. This was a wildly inaccurate production which portrayed Anne as a manipulative, promiscuous shrew. Natascha McElhone starred as Mary Boleyn, Steven MacIntosh as George Boleyn and Jared Harris, son of Richard Harris, played Henry VIII.

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Video release for Anne of the Thousand Days

In October of that year, the two-part ITV television drama Henry VIII aired in Britain. Helena Bonham Carter starred in Part 1 as Anne Boleyn, opposite Ray Winstone as Henry VIII and David Suchet as Cardinal Wolsey. Part 1 followed Henry's life from the birth of his illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy, until the execution of Anne Boleyn. Part 2 started on Jane Seymour's wedding day in 1536 and ended with Henry's funeral in 1547.

Anne's story appears fictionally in many novels including: The Lady in the Tower and Murder Most Royal by Jean Plaidy, The Dark Rose, by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles, The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn by Robin Maxwell, Brief, Gaudy Hour by Margaret Campbell-Barnes, The Queen of Subtleties by Susannah Dunn and the controversial The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory.

Dr. David Starkey (author of Six Wives) and Lady Antonia Fraser (author of many royal biographies, including those of Marie Antoinette and Mary, Queen of Scots) both offer more positive interpretations of Anne. Starkey is adamant that Anne was the most politically important of Henry's queens, and calls her "the most interesting, if not the most attractive" of the bunch.

The most favourable accounts of Anne Boleyn comes from Professor Eric W. Ives, author of several political studies of the era, including a biography of Anne entitled The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn, originally published in 1986, and revised and republished in 2004. Professor R.M. Warnicke, author of The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn and several studies on the era's sexual morals, also offers a favourable interpretation of Anne's "energy and vitality". Feminist historian, writer and activist, Karen Lindsey, in Divorced, Beheaded, Survived believes Anne's story is one of the great feminist parables of all time and says that the traditional image of Anne as a morally-loose ambitious homewrecker "makes for great melodrama, all it lacks is accuracy". Recently, English writer Joanna Denny, author of Anne Boleyn: A Life of England's Tragic Queen, has positively interpreted the enormous role Anne played in England's religious development.

Portraits

There is still some disagreement over which portrait authentically represents Anne Boleyn's true appearance. An original full-length portrait was painted when Anne was queen, but it disappeared over the following centuries. In the lifetime of Anne's daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, several copies were made - all of them depicting the same black dress and pearl necklace, but with some variations on skin and hair colouring. A locket ring of Queen Elizabeth contains a portrait of her mother.

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Painting of Anne Boleyn based one of the disputed Holbein sketches.

Two images made by the great German artist Hans Holbein also survive. The first was drawn sometime around 1530, but it was not labelled as "Anne Boleyn" until 1649 - over a century after her death - and so it is now generally regarded as inaccurate by most historians. Another Holbein sketch was labelled as Anne Boleyn in the reign of Edward VI but mistakes were made in this labelling process. Furthermore, the woman's physical appearance does not match accounts of Anne's appearance. Evidence suggests that it might actually be a sketch of a lady of the Wyatt family. The sitter is a fair-featured woman wearing a furred dressing gown and linen cap.

A miniature by the Flemish artist, Lucas Horenbout, was identified as Anne in the 1980s because the broach the lady wears supposedly shows a white falcon, which became Anne's symbol in 1533. However, the white falcon was also the symbol of Anne's Irish family and so it could be a portrait of any of Anne's female relatives. Furthermore, the wings of the falcon on the broach sweep downwards, whilst the wings on Anne's falcon went upwards. The image is actually too small to really say it's a falcon.

Another portrait, which now hangs at Nidd Hall in England, is supposedly painted of Anne later in her life. However, recent research has suggested that it was not painted until the 1560s and that the owners used it as tool to express their loyalty to Anne’s daughter, Elizabeth. It should not be regarded as authentic.

In later centuries hundreds of portraits were made to satisfy the public's fascination with her, but they should not be regarded as accurate. These later romantic portraits often showed her in inaccurate costumes or drew inspiration from the tragic scenes of her demise[2].

Modern-day pardon

On 1 April 2005, Wing Commander George Melville-Jackson approached British Home Secretary Charles Clarke in a bid for a formal pardon for Anne. Although she was long-dead, he asserted that she never deserved to be branded as a criminal; in the event that a declaration that she was not guilty of her alleged crimes was not possible, he would have settled for a pardon. He also sought the removal of her remains from her resting place at the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey, where Elizabeth I was buried. [3] The request was later rejected, since the antiquity of the case meant that so much of the original evidence had been destroyed that the British government was incapable of proving her innocence.

References

• Anne Boleyn by Marie-Louise Bruce (1972)
• The Challenge of Anne Boleyn by Hester W. Chapman (1974)
• Anne Boleyn by Professor E.W. Ives (1986)
• The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn: Family politics at the court of Henry VIII by Professor R.M. Warnicke (1989)
• The Six Wives of Henry VIII by Alison Weir (1991)
• The Wives of Henry VIII by Lady Antonia Fraser (1992)
• The Politics of Marriage by David Loades (1994)
• Divorced Beheaded Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII by Karen Lindsey (1995)
• Doomed Queen Anne by Caroline Meyer (2002)
• Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII by Dr. David Starkey (2003)
• Anne Boleyn: A new life of England's tragic queen by Joanna Denny (2004)
• The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn by Professor E.W. Ives (2004)

External links

• Me and Mine: Anne Boleyn 1507?-1536. Excellent for beginners and those with wider knowledge.
• Rise and Fall of the Boleyn family. It's particularly good for understanding Anne's political career, and her family background.
• MSN web-group devoted to the study of Anne Boleyn's life and career.
• Essay of art expert, Roland Hui, who examines all of Anne's portraits and decides which is the most accurate
• Interview with Anne's most respected modern biographer, E.W. Ives, from a Birmingham magazine in 1996.
• Tales from the Tudor Rose Bar for a bit of light-hearted fun at the Tudor family's expense. Anne appears here as a Hollywood-style diva.
• Site of author Wendy J. Dunn, author of "Dear Heart, How Like You This?" a novel about Anne Boleyn and Sir Thomas Wyatt, the elder.
• Article by author Wendy J. Dunn concerning Anne Boleyn's birth year.
• An examination of the evidence supporting both sides of the birth year debate, by Nell Gavin, author of "Threads: The Reincarnation of Anne Boleyn".
• Hever Castle, childhood home of Anne Boleyn.
• A Coronation Book for Anne Boleyn, 1533.

Preceded by Catherine of Aragon

Wives of Henry VIII

Succeeded by Jane Seymour