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==Women's sport at the Olympics==
==Women's sport at the Olympics==
{{main|Women's sport at the Olympics}}
{{main|Women's sport at the Olympics}}
{{Quote box
|align=right
|width=35%
|quote=We know we can't compete against football and rugby but to have more recognition and insight into the sport would be great
|source=Geva Mentor, England goal defence<ref name=bbc-2011>{{harvnb|BBC|2011}}</ref>
}}
Exclusion of netball from the [[Summer Olympics]] is part of a pattern of exclusion of women's sports.<ref name=Dyer-205>{{harvnb|Dyer|1982|p=205}}</ref> For example, women's cycling was excluded for many years despite having world championships organised by 1958.<ref name=Dyer-205/> [[Field hockey]], a sport included for men as early as 1908, was not open to competition by women until 1980.<ref name=Dyer-205/> [[Lawn bowls]] is a popular women's sport that has been included in the [[Commonwealth Games]] for many years, but has not made the Olympic programme.<ref name=Dyer-205/> While primarily a sport for women, netball allows for mixed teams,<ref name=Symons-122>{{harvnb|Symons|Hemphill|2006|p=122}}</ref><ref name=samoa-men>{{harvnb|Samoa Observer|2011}}</ref> but the Olympics do not allow mixed gender team sports.<ref name=Dyer-205/>{{#tag:ref |While team mixed gendered sports are not competed at the Olympics, some mixed gendered events are included. They include equestrian sports, shooting and sailing where men and women compete against each other. In shooting and sailing, women were originally only allowed to competed in mixed gendered events. Single gender events for these sports were not added until a later date.<ref name=ioc-2008-5>{{harvnb|International Olympic Committee|2008|p=5}}</ref>|name="mixed-sports" |group="note"}}


Attempts at inclusion of netball from the Olympic program reflect an effort to limit the total number of participants at the [[Summer Olympics]] out of cost and logistic concerns. For the first time, in 2012, the United States is sending more female participants to the games than male participants. The IOC committee that assembles the schedule of events for the games try to incorporate a variety of sports from a diverse set of disciplines. Because netball has a common evolutionary history with [[basketball]], and both women-team basketball and men-team basketball are already included in the Olympic programme, many observers find it unlikely that netball will be included along side basketball in the schedule.
The issues facing netball are part of a larger problem involving female participation in the Olympics.<ref name=Dyer-205/> At the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] in [[Barcelona]], there were 159 medal events for men, but only 86 for women, and 12 for both men and women.<ref name=pfistertews-274>{{harvnb|Pfister|Hartmann-Tews|2002|p=274}}</ref> Even at the [[2000 Summer Olympics]], there were still sports that excluded women, such as [[boxing]], [[wrestling]] and [[baseball]].<ref name=pfistertews-274/> The sports [[Rugby sevens]] and [[golf]], primarily played men, were chosen for inclusion in the [[2016 Summer Olympics|Rio Olympics]] ahead of netball.<ref name=bbc-2011>{{harvnb|BBC|2011}}</ref> That netball is played mostly by women is also seen as problematic as the IOC is looking for greater gender balance "netball being a female-dominated sport could be a hindrance."<ref name=wu-2012/>

The issue of male over-representation in terms of total number of sports and athletes is structural. In the [[United Kingdom]], for example, more male athletes than female ones receive financial support. Sports officials rationalise this uneven distribution by claiming that there are more opportunities for men to win at the highest level than there are for women.<ref name=pfistertews-274/> The importance of being part of the Summer Olympics is illustrated by [[softball]], and the benefits the sport derived from its inclusion.<ref name=Taylor-15>{{harvnb|Taylor|2001a|p=15}}</ref> This included additional media coverage, especially during Olympic years.<ref name=Taylor-15/> Olympic recognition plays an important part in getting sponsorship for local competitions around the world<ref name=FNB-2010>{{harvnb|First National Bank|2010}}</ref> and providing new opportunities for females.<ref name=FNB-2010/>


==Inclusion in the Olympic programme==
==Inclusion in the Olympic programme==

Revision as of 18:16, 16 July 2012

Netball and the Olympic Movement
Highest governing bodyInternational Federation of Netball Associations
Presence
OlympicIOC-recognised, 1995

Netball is an Olympic recognised sport, a status attained in 1995 after a twenty year period of lobbying. It has never been played at the Summer Olympics, but recognition means that it could be included at some point in the future. Its exclusion was seen by the netball community as a hindrance to the global growth of the game, depriving it of media attention and funding. When the sport gained recognition, it opened up sources of funds that the global netball community had not been able to access before, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC), national Olympic committees and sports organisations, and state and federal governments.

Women's sport at the Olympics

Main article: Women's sport at the Olympics

Attempts at inclusion of netball from the Olympic program reflect an effort to limit the total number of participants at the Summer Olympics out of cost and logistic concerns. For the first time, in 2012, the United States is sending more female participants to the games than male participants. The IOC committee that assembles the schedule of events for the games try to incorporate a variety of sports from a diverse set of disciplines. Because netball has a common evolutionary history with basketball, and both women-team basketball and men-team basketball are already included in the Olympic programme, many observers find it unlikely that netball will be included along side basketball in the schedule.

Inclusion in the Olympic programme

Efforts to include netball in the Olympics started in 1967, at the time when International Federation of Netball Associations was founded. The Jamaican and Singaporean delegations present at the meeting suggested the newly created organisation become affiliated with the World Olympic Sports Council and try to get netball included on the Olympic programme. There were split opinions inside the newly formed organisation as to whether or not this was a goal worth striving for, but it was ultimately decided this was an objective worth working towards. The Federation's first application was rejected because application referred to the sport as women's basketball and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) said there could not be two different sports with the same name on the Olympic programme.[1] This rationale for this rejection was one of the driving factors in changing the name of the sport and the Federation.[1][note 1][note 2]


A second application was started in 1971 after the previous rejection which reflected the name change. While name changes and other International Olympic Committee suggestions were agreed upon as necessary to go forward, the integration of these changes into the Federation's constitution and governance strategy took over four years and the application languished as a result until 1979, when the IOC responded back with a request for additional information of IFNA's finances and governance. The decision to provide additional information was deferred until 1979's Conference. The Jamaican representatives were frustrated with the slow process inside the organisation and tried to take steps to speed the process up inside the Federation. This included submitting proposals for organisational changes to address the most recent IOC feedback, addressing issues such as player drug testing, the selling of television and radio rights, and how to establish an Olympic draw among other points. Because of Jamaican influence, the Federation created a specific committee to work on the issue of addressing Olympic requirements, which was composed of New Zealander's Rena Straford, Lorna McOnchie and Anne Taylor. They were supposed to have these issues addressed by a meeting scheduled at the end of 1979.[3][note 3] Delays happened because of the structure of the Federation and the required material was not ready for presenting before IFNA's Council until 1983. During this four year waiting period, Jamaica and Bermuda continued to agitate for the Federation to speed the process along as attaining recognition would provide their region with additional funding and make it easier to grow the sport regionally. The second application was eventually rejected in 1983, with the IOC claiming the sport had "limited popularity."[4][note 4]

Because of the 1983 rejection, an earlier idea that had been tried and failed in 1979 was revisited: Creating regional Federations for the Americas, Europe, Oceania and Asia, regional groupings mirroring that of the Olympic organisers. This was implemented by 1987[4], which was rejected later that year because the sport did not meet all the criteria established and it was not yet a global sport. The IOC viewed the sport as one belonging only to the Commonwealth of Nations.[5][note 4] In the mean time, the IOC did provide the Federation with a US$1,000 grant, though none of this grant money was used by 1991. Because of what appeared to be the unlikely recognition by the IOC, the Federation urged its national members to seek membership with their national Olympic committees so national federations could access national funding in order to help grow the sport inside their home countries.[5]

A decision was made to try again for Olympic recognition was made, but the Federation was irritated because they had never been given clear guidelines for what the IOC was looking for in terms of a sport gaining Olympic recognition. The Federation believed that every time they met the criteria they were given, there was a new hoop for them to jump through.[5] An example of this was a requirement given to the Federation 1992/1993 that the IOC be given technical specs for venue space should the sport be included on the Olympic programme. The Federation continued to work to address these requirements and eventually, in October 1993, netball through IFNA was given provisional Olympic recognition, requiring a two year probation period. This recognition came with a US$10,000 per year per region for the Federation to develop the sport around the world.[6]

In 1995, the International Olympic Committee recognized the International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA) as a sports federation.[7][8][9][10][11] after a twenty year period of lobbying[8][12][13] and a two year probation period.[10] This makes it eligible to be played in future Games.[14][15] One attempt was made in 1989, when Olympic recognition was sought for the West German World Games.[16] This failed.[note 5]

Recognition as a sports federal has meant national associations could become full members of their countries' national Olympic committees.[8][12] National members of International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA) were able to apply for that recognition by 1993.[12] The All Australia Netball Association is one national organisation that has become a full member of their national Olympic committee.[9] In 2004, International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognition of the IFNA was renewed.[17] The IFNA has made Olympic recognition part of its long term strategy towards continuing to grow the game.[17]

There have been multiple unsuccessful attempts by the IFNA to include netball in the Summer Olympic Programme.[18][9][19] In 1996, the netball leadership actively pursued the possibility of netball being played at the 2000 Summer Olympics.[19] The government of New South Wales encouraged the Australian Olympic Committee to lobby for the inclusion of netball in the 2008 Beijing Olympic games.[9] Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Netball England national team member Tamsin Greenway, two time Olympic gold medallist Kelly Holmes and Olympic heptathlon competitor Denise Lewis are English supporters who would like to see netball in future Olympic games.[18] However, almost all other former Olympic gold medallists have not expressed an opinion one way or the other on whether netball should be included in the Olympic Programme. The earliest the sport could be included on the programme would be 2024.[20]

The selection of women's team sports for the Olympics is not supposed to reflect grassroots participation levels in a particular country.[15] In Australia for example, 245,300 women and girls play basketball, hockey, soccer, softball and volleyball, compared to 319,500 who play netball.[15]

Some supporters have argued that trying to internationalise the game and have it played in the Summer Olympics has moved netball away from a recreational model and more towards a competitive sport model. This is viewed by some people as potentially detrimental to the game:

Geary (1995) has debated whether moves to commercialisation would ultimately benefit netball or women's sport. She speculated that professionalising netball might help challenge traditional structures, which have reinforced sport as a site of exploitation and subordination of women. On the other hand there was a danger that such moves would represent conformation to a male model of sport and merely perpetuate a masculine hegemony of capitalist rationality and female discrimination. Broomhall (1993) argued in favour of the latter, that in striving for greater internationalisation, aiming for Olympic competition, and trying to attract sponsorship, women have moved netball closer to a male model of competitive and aggressive sport.[21]

In an extraordinary session in Mexico City in November 2002, the IOC decided to limit the total number of sports to 28, events to 301 and athletes to 10,500, slowing the process of adding new sports to future Olympic Games.[22] At the extraordinary session, the IOC set forth the requirements that a sport must meet before it is eligible for inclusion in the Olympic programme.[23] The table created in the documentation for this meeting is provided below[23]:

Name Example Conditions to be met for inclusion in the Olympic Games[23]
Federation Fédération Internationale de Natation Administer one or several sports at world level and encompass organisations administering such sports at national level (national federations)[23]
Have statutes, practice and activities in conformity with the Olympic Charter[23]
Have adopted and implemented the World Anti-Doping Code[23]
Sport Aquatics For the Games of the Olympiad: be widely practised by men in at least 75 countries and on four continents and by women in at least 40 countries and on three continents[23]
For the Winter Games: be widely practised in at least 20 countries on three continents[23]
Have adopted and implemented the World Anti-Doping Code[23]
Be admitted to the programme seven years before the Olympic Games[23]
Discipline Diving Have a recognised international standing[23]
For the Games of the Olympiad: be widely practised by men in at least 75 countries and on four continents and by women in at least 40 countries and on three continents[23]
For the Winter Games: be widely practised in at least 25 countries on three continents[23]
Be admitted to the programme seven years before the Olympic Games[23]
Event Individual springboard (diving) Have a recognised international standing both numerically and geographically, and have been included at least twice in world or continental championships[23]
Be practised by men in at least 50 countries and on three continents and by women in at least 35 countries and on three continents[23]
Be admitted three years before the Olympic Games[23]

Funding

The lack of Olympic recognition hampered the globalisation of the game in developing countries[24] because the Olympic Solidarity Movement provides access to funding for these nations through the International Olympic Committee.[24] In some countries, such as Tanzania, the lack of access to Olympic funding cut off other options such as funding by the British Council.[25] With official recognition, funding from the IOC, the Olympic Solidarity Movement and the British Council became available to cover costs for travel to international competitions.[24] For some nations, without that assistance, trying to maintain international calibre teams was difficult.[24] Olympic recognition brought money for development into the sport.[17] In 2004, IFNA received a grant of US$10,000 from the IOC for development.[17] IFNA was given an additional US$3,300 a year until 2007 by the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports (ARISF).[17]

Beyond access to funds from the IOC, state and national sporting bodies, and state and federal governments often use IOC status as a funding criteria. This has been the case in Australia,[26] and British Columbia, Canada.[27] In 1985, the Australian Sports Commission and the Office of the Status of Women identified five criteria for obtaining federal funding.[26] One of these was "status as an Olympic sport and its size by registrations."[26][note 6] In British Columbia, one of the guidelines says that in order to receive funding, "the sport must be on the program for either the 2011 or 2013 Canada Games and/or the next scheduled recognized International Multi-Sport Games (Olympics/Paralympics, Pan American or Commonwealth Games, Special Olympic World Games)".[27]

The IOC and its daughter organisations give awards and scholarships.[28][29] In 1995, two of the scholarships offered by the Oceania Olympic Training Centre were given to netballers: Janaet Snape and Darlene Marsters.[28] The Oceania Olympic Training Centre also made it possible for Mona-Lisa Leka from Papua New Guinea to go to Australia to train.[28] In 2007, the IOC awarded Veitu Apana Diro, the Vice-President of the NOC of Papua New, the Trophy for Oceania. This recognition came in part because she had created the nation's national netball organisation in 1965 and actively promoted women's involvement in netball around the country.[29]

Media coverage

While netball may be the most popular women's participation sport in many Commonwealth countries, such as Tanzania, the effort to increase media attention and participation for women's sport often goes to Olympic sports with low participation rates, low rates of interest and few facilities.[15][25] Even then, historically, coverage of women's team sports in the Olympics has been limited.[15] Instead, the media focus on female athletes in non-team competitions and on team sports played equally by both genders.[15]

National associations

National netball associations have been involved with national Olympic committees as members or associate members, or had their administrators generally involved with national Olympic Committees, for a long time. In the case of the Bahamas, by 1960 the Bahamas Olympic Association had as one of its member organisations the national netball association.[30] Netball was also represented in the Dominica Olympic Committee almost from the moment the organisation was founded.[31] Some of the national netball federations that are affiliated with their national Olympic Committee include Netball Singapore[32] and the All Australia Netball Association.[9]

Notes

  1. ^ There was tremendous resistance in Australia and New Zealand to changing the name. The Federation made "major concessions" to both countries to incentivize them to change the name of their national federations and inside their countries.[1]
  2. ^ In 1965, the IOC criteria required a sport must be played in at least 11 nations and the international body represented the sport must have at least 27 national organisations affiliated with it.[2]
  3. ^ Concurrently to trying to gain Olympic recognition, the organisation was also seeking recognition from the Commonwealth Games.[3]
  4. ^ a b While the netball was not able to gain Olympic recognition during this period, it did gain recognition from General Assembly of International Sports Federations. This allowed netball to be played at the World Games in 1985.[4] Cite error: The named reference "world-games" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ The tournament still took place, with New Zealand winning.[16]
  6. ^ Netball qualified for funding because it met the other criteria. From 1980 to 1984, the sport received A$497,000 in funding.[26]

References

  1. ^ a b c Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 117
  2. ^ Embrey 2005, p. 152-156
  3. ^ a b Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 119
  4. ^ a b c Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 120
  5. ^ a b c d Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 121
  6. ^ Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 122
  7. ^ Smartt & Chalmers 2009
  8. ^ a b c Taylor 2001, p. 67
  9. ^ a b c d e Parliament of New South Wales, 21 September 2004
  10. ^ a b Netball Australia 1996, p. 6
  11. ^ Hyland & McHugh 2011, p. 124
  12. ^ a b c Taylor 2001a, p. 14
  13. ^ McCann 2006, p. 51
  14. ^ International Federation of Netball Associations
  15. ^ a b c d e f Jones 2004, p. 143
  16. ^ a b Netball New Zealand 2009
  17. ^ a b c d e Shooting for Success 2004, p. 1
  18. ^ a b Jordan 2011
  19. ^ a b Netball Australia 1996, p. 7
  20. ^ Wu & 9 June 2012
  21. ^ Taylor 2001a, p. 16
  22. ^ International Olympic Committee 2008, p. 1
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Cite error: The named reference ioc-2008-5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  24. ^ a b c d Crocombe 2007, p. 156
  25. ^ a b Massoa & Fasting 2002, p. 120
  26. ^ a b c d Australian Sport Commission & Office of the Status of Women 1985, p. 92
  27. ^ a b Community, Sport and Cultural Development 2010, p. 5
  28. ^ a b c Netball Australia 1996, p. 12
  29. ^ a b International Olympic Committee 2007, p. 2
  30. ^ Ministry of Education & Culture 1970, p. 187
  31. ^ Dominica Olympic Committee 2010
  32. ^ Singapore National Olympic Council 2010

Bibliography

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  • BBC (6 January 2011). "Mentor wants netball at Olympics". Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Community, Sport and Cultural Development - Province of British Columbia (2011). "BC ATHLETE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 2010 - 2011 Provincial Sport Organization Guidelines, Policies and Procedures" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2011.
  • Crocombe, R G (2007). Asia in the Pacific Islands : replacing the West. CIPS Publications, University of the South Pacific. ISBN 982-02-0388-0. OCLC 213886360. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Dominica Olympic Committee (24 April 2010). "History". Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Dyer, K F (1982). Challenging the Men, The social biology of female sporting achievement. University of Queensland Press. ISBN 0-7022-1652-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Embrey, Lynn (1995). "The Olympics". Batter up! : the history of softball in Australia. Bayswater, Vic.: Australian Softball Federation. pp. 152–156. ISBN 0646264850. OCLC 37094381. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  • First National Bank (2010). "School Sport LOCAL SPORT INITIATIVES". Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Hyland, Deirdre; McHugh, Dorothy (2011). Netball state of play : IFNA 50 years history challenge future. Sherwood, Qld.: Deirdre Hyland AM and Dorothy McHugh OAM. ISBN 978-0-646-55640-6. OCLC 730045319. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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  • International Olympic Committee (2007). "IOC 2007 WOMEN & SPORT TROPHY WINNERS" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • International Olympic Committee (2008). "The sports on the Olympic programme" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Jordan, David (13 January 2011). "Greenway calls for netball's Olympic inclusion". Sportsbeat & News Associates. Retrieved 26 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Jones, Diane (2004). "Half the Story? Olympic Women on the ABC News Online" (PDF). Media International Australia incorporating Culture and Policy (110): 132–146. Retrieved 15 March 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  • Massoa, Prisca; Fasting, Kari (2002). "Women and sport in Tanzania". In Pfister, Gertrud; Hartmann-Tews, Ilse (eds.). Sport and Women: Social Issues in International Perspective. International Society for Comparative Physical Education & Sport. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24628-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • McCann, Liam (2006). The Olympics. London: Facts, Figures & Fun,. ISBN 1904332404. OCLC 62892347. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
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See also


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